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A Whole-Field Interferometric Scheme for Measuring strain and Flow Rates of Glacier and Other Natural Surfaces
- Gary Cloud, Edgar Conley
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- Journal:
- Journal of Glaciology / Volume 29 / Issue 103 / 1983
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- 20 January 2017, pp. 492-497
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The flow of glacier ice is mapped using high-resolution photography and non-coherent-light speckle interferometry. Young’s fringe patterns result when a double-exposed photoplate image of the straining surface is illuminated by a narrow beam of coherent light. Geometry gives a relationship between the ice surface displacement vector and the interference fringe patterns. This displacement vector is corrected for rigid-body (camera) movement and projected onto the ice surface using topological maps. The strain during the time-lapse interval is thus known. Comparison with data acquired by surveying techniques at Nisqually Glacier, Washington, U.S.A., is limited because of small overlap of the surface studied. In the areas for which results can be compared, our experiments yield a flow of 0.6 m/d where conventional methods yield about 0.4 m/d.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. 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Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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Strain gauge measurement of rein tension during riding: a pilot study
- Hilary M Clayton, Wesley H Singleton, Joel L Lanovaz, Gary L Cloud
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- Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology / Volume 2 / Issue 3 / August 2005
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- 09 March 2007, pp. 203-205
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A pilot study was performed using a strain gauge transducer intercalated between the bit and the left rein to measure rein tension dynamically during riding. The strain patterns consisted of a series of spikes with frequencies corresponding to two per stride in walk and trot and one per stride in canter. The highest tension recorded in each gait was 43 N at walk, 51 N at trot and 104 N in canter. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that the methodology should be adapted so that both reins are instrumented simultaneously, data are transmitted telemetrically to eliminate the need for a tether connecting the horse to the computer, and kinematic data are synchronized with the rein tension recordings.
18 - Laser speckle and combinations of speckle fields
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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Summary
Measurement methods based on the phenomenon known as coherent light speckle have become increasingly important in recent years. The development of electronic speckle pattern interferometry, in which the speckle patterns are acquired by a television system and then combined in a computer to create fringe patterns that can be displayed on a television monitor, has generated additional interest in speckle methods.
This chapter discusses the origins and nature of laser speckle, and it then goes on to describe the product of combining speckle fields in different ways. These notions are important to understanding the various methods by which speckle is employed in interferometry, as are described in subsequent chapters. Given the importance of electronic speckle techniques, the development assumes, where appropriate, that the recording of speckle irradiance is by means of an electronic detector rather than by a photographic emulsion.
Most of the concepts in this chapter have been treated exhaustively, lucidly, and creatively by Ennos (1975), Goodman (1975), Jones and Wykes (1983), and Vest (1979). The exposition that follows is synthesized primarily from these references, particularly the first three. In some cases, the words follow closely those of the the authors; their descriptions have become accepted as the classical standards. The references mentioned also carry extensive and useful bibliograpies.
The speckle effect
The invention of the laser created great anticipation among users of optics because it appeared to be the answer to a great many illumination problems. Here was a source that produced a beam of light that was intense, collimated, narrow, monochromatic, and coherent. Disappointment soon followed.
Frontmatter
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Acknowledgments
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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2 - Light and interference
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Part III - Geometrical moire
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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Subject index
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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3 - Classical interferometry
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Summary
Some examples of so-called classical interferometric techniques are described in this brief chapter. Also included is a discussion of laser Doppler interferometry, which is fundamentally different from the other methods discussed in this book, but which has matured into an extremely useful approach for dynamic measurement.
Newton's rings
One of the oldest and most easily observed of interferometric phenomena is the formation of interference fringes in thin films. Apparently, they were first described scientifically by Boyle and Hooke, but they are named after Newton because he first analyzed their properties. This type of interference is responsible for the colors observed in an oil slick. It causes troublesome spurious fringes when one photoplate is contact copied onto another and when glass cover plates are used to protect your favorite 35-mm slide. On the other hand, Newton's rings provide an easy way of checking for full contact between two surfaces, as when an optical flat is used to check the flatness of a finely lapped surface. A similar process accounts for the functioning of dielectric interference filters that are used to isolate a narrow band of wavelengths from a beam of light. In fracture mechanics research, Newton's rings have been used for measuring the opening of cracks in transparent materials.
Analysis of the formation of Newton's rings in the general case (Born and Wolf 1975; Tolansky 1973) is not as simple as might be thought. Only the most basic case is discussed here, as the purpose is primarily one of example.
This type of interferometry is classed as amplitude division because each wave train of light is divided into two parts that are subsequently recombined.
14 - A moire interferometer
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Summary
General considerations relevant to the design of moire interferometry apparatus are presented, followed by a description of the construction and adjustment of a particular 6-beam 3-axis device.
Approaches to design
There are three general design steps in the physical realization of a device for performing interferometry, including the moire variety. First, the needed special capabilities and tolerable limitations must be listed. Second, an optical arrangement that will satisfy the requirements must be designed. Finally, optical components must be obtained and arranged to perform the desired tasks.
Various optical arrangements for moire interferometry have been employed (Cloud and Herrera Franco 1986; Herrera Franco 1985; McDonach, McKelvie, and Walker 1980; Post 1980; Post 1987; Post and Baracat 1981; Post, Han, and Ifju 1994). Discussion of all the possibilities would be somewhat tedious and could be counterproductive in that the reader's attention might be distracted from the development process. Once the process is understood, the practitioner can review literature on the designs that have been employed and can then modify these designs or create new ones to fit the problems and resources at hand. For that reason, attention here is focused on the design and construction of a general-purpose 6-beam instrument with useful capabilities for experiments that require full knowledge of the surface strain fields in different types of specimens (Cloud, et al. 1987; Cloud, Herrera Franco, and Bayer 1989; Herrera Franco 1985).
11 - Moire with diffraction and Fourier optical processing
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Summary
In this chapter, diffraction and spatial filtering theory are put to good use in moire measurement of displacements, with significant gains in sensitivity and flexibility. Before we describe the method, some additional development of diffraction by superimposed gratings is necessary. Improvement of moire results by performing spatial filtering during the grating photography is also explored.
The basic idea
Although useful moire fringe patterns can be obtained by direct superposition of the grating photographs with one another or with a submaster grating, as is discussed in Chapter 8, such a simple procedure does not yield the best results, nor does it exploit the full potential of the information that is stored in a photograph of a deformed specimen grating. Increased sensitivity, improved fringe visibility, and control of the measurement process can be had by utilizing some of the basic procedures of optical data processing.
Three related physical phenomena are important in developing an understanding of moire fringe formation and multiplication by superimposing grating photographs in a coherent optical analyzer. The first of these phenomena is the diffraction of light by a grating, or more accurately, by superimposed pairs of gratings having slightly different spatial frequencies. The second is the interference fringe patterns that are produced in the diffraction orders by interference of two beams that come together at small relative inclination. The third important phenomenon is that a simple lens acts as a Fourier transformer or spectrum analyzer and offers the possibility of performing filtering operations on space-dependent optical signals in a manner analogous to the treatment of time-dependent vibration and electrical signals. Actually, these concepts are not independent from each other; they are manifestations of fundamental interference and diffraction processes.
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Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
- Gary Cloud
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Fundamental measurement problems in engineering, mechanics, manufacturing, and physics are now being solved by powerful optical methods. This book presents a lucid, up-to-date discussion of these optical methods. Beginning from a firm base in modern optics, the book proceeds through relevant theory of interference and diffraction and integrates this theory with descriptions of laboratory techniques and apparatus. Among the techniques discussed are classical interferometry, photoelasticity, geometric moire, spatial filtering, moire interferometry, holography, holographic interferometry, laser speckle interferometry, and video-based speckle methods. By providing a firm base in the physical principles and at the same time allowing the reader to perform meaningful experiments related to the topic being studied, the book offers a unique user-oriented approach that will appeal to students, researchers and practising engineers.
6 - Photoelasticity methods and applications
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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Summary
This chapter treats several topics that are important not only in photoelasticity but also in other areas of interferometry. For example, many engineering experiments require good knowledge of the viscoelastic properties of materials and how to measure them. The transfer of experimental results from model to prototype is important to anyone contemplating experiments that might involve models, and such experiments are very common. Measurement of exact fractional fringe orders is useful in many applications of interferometry, and the methods used in photoelasticity provide a basis for similar methods in other areas, such as phase shifting in electronic speckle pattern interferometry.
Even so, inclusion of all the material that should appear in a chapter on applied photoelastic interferometry has been problematical because of space limitations and possible perceived distortion of emphasis. A factor is that many optical methods courses still spend a good deal of time on applied photoelasticity, and rightly so because it is an important engineering tool. Industrial users of the book probably need more on the subject than is given in Chapter 5. The coverage, in the end, represents a compromise among utility, educational value, length limitations, and the overall balance of the book; and it should be viewed in that light.
Finally, many of the references cited in the preceding two chapters are relevant to this one, even though they might not be mentioned specifically. The literature on techniques of photoelasticity is very large, and practitioners of the art will need to examine a good deal of it. Burger (1987) provides a particularly extensive and valuable list of references along with a wealth of technical detail.
16 - Holographic interferometry theory
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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Summary
This chapter begins the study of a topic that is very interesting for many reasons, technical and otherwise. Holography is a method for creating three-dimensional images without a lens, and it offers many intriguing possibilities. Holographic images are precise enough to be used in interferometry, and this idea leads to several powerful techniques for measurement in a broad range of application areas.
Orientation
Holography is a unique method of storing and regenerating all the amplitude and phase information contained in the light that is scattered from an illuminated body. Because all the information is reproduced, the regenerated object beam is, in the ideal case, indistinguishable from the original. Here is a technology that offers the possibility of perfect three-dimensional photography. Since it is possible to record the exact shape and position of a body in two different states, then it is also possible to compare the two records to obtain a precise measure of the movement or deformation. This measurement technique is called holographic interferometry.
Holography was invented by Dennis Gabor in about 1948 as a method for improving the usefulness of microscopy. It did not work very well, partly because the two beams created in holographic reconstruction, which form what are commonly thought of as the real and virtual images, ended up in line with one another in the arrangement necessitated by the apparatus then available. His theory was not, apparently, limited in this way; but the potential beauty and utility of the technique were masked by the problem with the two images.
19 - Speckle photography
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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- 26 May 1995, pp 409-439
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Summary
This chapter presents a remarkably simple and effective way to use the speckle effect in the measurement of displacements and deformations. It can give point-by-point or whole-field data, and the sensitivity can be made variable. The method can be extended to use noncoherent illumination, and an example of such an application is described. Certain versions of the technique are closely tied to moire and shearographic techniques. These parallels are noted because they provide valuable unifying insight.
Introduction
A direct and simple exploitation of speckle for engineering measurement is to use it as a microscopic marker of points on the surface of the object being studied. A single speckle is a unique signature derived from the local characteristics of a small area of the object surface and dependent on the geometry of the optical system and the numerical aperture of the illumination or viewing system. If a speckled image is created, then the speckle near a point in the image is uniquely identified with the corresponding point on the object. If the point on the object moves within certain limits, and if the optical system is not changed, then the speckle moves with the point, and the motion is apparent in the image. The speckle is not lost or reformed. If the speckle is recorded for two states of the specimen, then the displacement of the speckle corresponds to the local displacement of the surface.
Suggestions for the direct use of coherent light speckle in displacement metrology and contour mapping first began to appear in about 1968. Subsequent development was quite rapid and somewhat complicated with several different researchers working simultaneously but independently on differing approaches to similar problems.
Part I - Optics and interferometry
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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- 26 May 1995, pp 11-12
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Part V - Moire interferometry
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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- 26 May 1995, pp 267-268
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1 - Introduction and orientation
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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- 26 May 1995, pp 1-10
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Summary
This chapter states the goals of the book, traces some reasons for its existence, and describes the best ways to use it. Some of the material that appears here would normally be found in an Author's Preface and would, because of its position of exile outside the main text, suffer the fate of being unread. Given the character of this treatise and its somewhat odd but purposeful organization, it seems best to give this commentary the status of a chapter.
Objectives
The author perceives that a strong need exists for a book about optical methods of experimental engineering analysis, a book that begins from a firm base in the sciences of physics and modern classical optics, proceeds through careful discussion of relevant theory, and continues through descriptions of laboratory techniques and apparatus that are complete enough to help practicing experimental analysts solve their special measurement problems.
This book on optics, interferometry, and optical methods in engineering measurement is primarily a teaching tool, designed to meet that need. It is not intended to be a research monograph, although it contains many examples drawn from research applications. It is not an encyclopedia of results, nor is it a handbook on optical techniques. It grew from lecture notes prepared during the past 25 years for graduate and undergraduate courses in experimental mechanics. These courses are taken by graduate students and seniors who have a variety of educational and professional experiences in several science and engineering disciplines.
Part VII - Speckle methods
- Gary Cloud, Michigan State University
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- Optical Methods of Engineering Analysis
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- 12 January 2010
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- 26 May 1995, pp 393-394
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