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12 - Nanomagnetic logic: from magnetic ordering to magnetic computing
- from Section IV - Spin-based devices
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- By György Csaba, University of Notre Dame, Gary H. Bernstein, University of Notre Dame, Alexei Orlov, University of Notre Dame, Michael T. Niemier, University of Notre Dame, X. Sharon Hu, University of Notre Dame, Wolfgang Porod, University of Notre Dame
- Edited by Tsu-Jae King Liu, University of California, Berkeley, Kelin Kuhn, Cornell University, New York
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- Book:
- CMOS and Beyond
- Published online:
- 05 February 2015
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- 05 February 2015, pp 301-334
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Summary
Magnetic computing defined
Magnetic computing – in the broadest sense – is about using magnetic signals (nanomagnets, domain walls) to represent and process information. Nowadays, when “information processing” and “electronics” is synonymous, this concept sounds rather exotic. However, before the triumphant era of CMOS logic devices, non-charge based computers were serious candidates for information processing – for example, ingenious magnetic computing circuits were invented by R. J. Spain [1–3]. It was Cowburn [4] who first realized that the properties of nanoscale, single-domain magnets – which are very different from large, multi-domain magnets – are well suited for digital computing.
This chapter deals with one approach to magnetic computing, nanomagnet logic (or NML) [5, 6]. In NML devices, binary information is represented by the state (magnetization direction) of single domain nanomagnets and the magnetically represented information is propagated and processed by magnetic dipole–dipole interactions. From the circuit architecture point of view, NML builds on the concept of “quantum-dot cellular automata” [7] – they both share the idea of representing binary signals by bistable nanosystems and processing them through field-interactions. For this reason, nanomagnet logic was formerly called “magnetic quantum-dot cellular automata” (QCA), or field-coupled computing.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. 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Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. 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Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Quantum-dot Cellular Automata
- Gregory L. Snider, Alexei O. Orlov, Ravi K. Kummamuru, Rajagopal Ramasubramaniam, Islamshah Amlani, Gary H. Bernstein, Craig S. Lent
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 696 / 2001
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 17 March 2011, N7.6
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- 2001
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An overview is given of the quantum-dot cellular automata (QCA) architecture, along with a summary of experimental demonstrations of QCA devices. QCA is a transistorless computation paradigm that can provide a solution to such challenging issues as device and power density. The basic building blocks of the QCA architecture, such as AND, OR gates and clocked cells have been demonstrated and will be presented here. The quantum dots used in the experiments to date are metal islands that are coupled by capacitors and tunnel junctions, and devices operate only at very low temperatures. For QCA to be used in practical devices, the operating temperature must be raised, and issues such as background charge must be addressed. An introduction will be given to these issues and possible solutions.
In Situ Observations of Pre-Patterned Void Interactions Under Electromigration-Induced Stress
- Richard Frankovic, Gary H. Bernstein
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 428 / 1996
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 15 February 2011, 101
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- 1996
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Electromigration (EM) void nucleation and growth is a failure mechanism of integrated circuit (IC) metallization. The time-to-failure of interconnect lines depends on the void nucleation time and the void growth time. The current understanding of the void growth stage is minimal, and characterization of the void growth stage is essential to further explain EM performance of IC metal interconnections. This work used high-resolution electron-beam lithography to define small dimension edge-voids into gold lines at various separation distances from each other, on the same side or opposite sides of the lines. The EM-induced interaction behavior of pre-defined voids was measured in a FESEM in-situ. Results showed that for small separation distances, void-void interaction enabled shape changes in the pre-patterned voids. For larger separation distance, void-void interactions could be characterized by secondary, induced void and hillock area measurements. As the separation distance increased, the void-void interaction diminished, and the voids acted independently of each other.
Duty Cycle and Frequency Effects of Pulsed-DC Currents on Electromigration-Induced Stress in Al Interconnects
- Richard Frankovic, Gary H. Bernstein
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 428 / 1996
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- 15 February 2011, 109
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- 1996
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The effects of the duty cycle and frequency of a pulsed-current stress on the critical length-current density product, (jlc) were measured using edge-displacement techniques. In our study, Al edge-displacement segments were stressed at a temperature of 200 °C and at peak pulsed-dc current densities below 6×105 A/cm2 in a nitrogen ambient. jlc was measured for duty cycles of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% at 100 kHz, and for 50% duty cycle at lower frequencies. jlc was observed to increase with decreasing duty cycle and increasing frequency. We measured a 2.6-fold increase in jlc for the 25% duty cycle at 100 kHz as compared to dc. We have used the vacancy supersaturation model to predict the jlc enhancement for lower duty cycle operation.
Grain Structure and Electromigration Testing of Deep Sub- Micrometer Cu Interconnects
- Richard Frankovic, Gary H. Bernstein
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 391 / 1995
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- 15 February 2011, 403
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- 1995
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Copper interconnect test stripes were fabricated by electron-beam lithography, evaporation and lift-off to linewidths as small as 140 nm. Grain structure in the as-deposited films exhibited smaller standard deviation than long-term annealed films. Grain growth during the anneal step increased maximum grain size by 2.5 times. Electromigration lifetime testing indicated these interconnects have 2-4 orders-of-magnitude greater normal-use lifetimes than large cross-sectional area, large-grain Al-alloy interconnects.
In-Situ Observations of Electromigration-Induced Void Dynamics
- Richard Frankovic, Gary H. Bernstein
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 404 / 1995
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- 15 February 2011, 163
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- 1995
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Electromigration void nucleation and growth is a failure mechanism of integrated circuit (IC) metallization. The time-to-failure of interconnect lines depends on the void nucleation time and the void growth time. While much work has been done to model the void nucleation stage, the current understanding of the void growth stage is minimal. The importance of characterizing the void growth and motion dynamics is essential to further explain electromigration performance of IC metal interconnections.
Electromigration-induced voids previously studied have been observed to grow, coalesce, and even heal, but quantitative information on these dynamics is lacking. This work uses high-resolution electron-beam lithography to define sub-micrometer voids of various sizes and shapes into gold lines in order to observe void growth and movement with respect to initial void size and shape. The electromigration-induced dynamic behavior of pre-defined voids was measured in a field-emission scanning electron microscope in-situ. Results showed these prepatterned voids can re-fill or grow, and can yield quantitative results on dynamic void behavior.