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- By Ashley Anklam, Mari B. Baker, Lisa Barker, Anthony J. Buecker, Richard Frederick, John Hafner, Haisler Rose, Guyon J. Hill, Jeanise Selina, Koyfman Alex, Vivian Lau, James F. Martin, Matthews Paul, Riech Teresa, Timothy Schaefer, Schmidt Theodor, Robert Schwaner, Marc D. Squillante, Gregory J. Tudor, Vincent Andrew, E. John Wipfler, Zavitz Joshua
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- Pocket Guide to the American Board of Emergency Medicine In-Training Exam
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- 05 July 2013
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. 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Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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1 - Introduction
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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- 24 November 1989, pp 1-35
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Summary
Among the depressing features of international political studies is the small gain in explanatory power that has come from the large amount of work done in recent decades. Nothing seems to accumulate, not even criticism. Instead, the same sorts of summary and superficial criticisms are made over and over again, and the same sorts of errors are repeated.
Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (1979, p. 18)Despite the attention of such intellectual giants as Spinoza, Rousseau, Kant, and Clausewitz, we know little more about international conflict today than was known to Thucydides four hundred years before Christ.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, The War Trap (1981, p. 2)Perspectives
Although the causes of international instability and conflict have been the object of intense scholarly concern, the events of our century are not inconsistent with the supposition that we have made little progress in identifying those causes, that, once identified, we have not adequately applied our research to the discovery of correctives, or that those causes have multiplied at a pace that exceeds our abilities of assimilation and analysis. Some scholars amass and analyze vast arrays of data on diplomatic exchanges, military expenditures, economic indicators, the formation of alliances, and the frequency and severity of wars; others apply the mathematics of decision and game theory with varying degrees of sophistication to the description of international relations processes; and still others reason through the meaning and application of concepts and words such as polarity, power, regime, deterrence, neocolonialism, and the balance of power. If this research has uncovered causes and correctives then, for one reason or another, the corresponding scholarly utterances have been less than compelling.
References and selected bibliography on European great-power relations, 1871–1914
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 333-348
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8 - European conflict resolution, 1875–1914
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 271-310
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Summary
Should equilibrium be attained at one point, it would immediately be wiped out by the search for slight superiority.
Ernest B. Haas, “The Balance of Power: Prescription, Concept or Propaganda?“ (1953, p. 450)[A] system of flexible alliance arrangements can only maintain stability if the core powers can jointly increase their capabilities at the expense of peripheral actors.
Partha Chatterjee, Arms, Alliances, and Stability (1975, p. 126)In Chapter 7, we examined the general applicability of our model to alliance formation, concluding that European alliances between 1871 and 1914 are consistent with a calculation of coalitional value derived from the concept of system stability, and consistent as well with the respective roles of Germany and Britain as central power and balancer. However, system stability does not imply resource stability, which leaves room at a more microlevel for threats and counterthreats to be directed at achieving, if not the “slight superiority” to which Haas refers, at least some advantage. This view of instability within stability leads us to different predictions about conflict resolution than others offer. Translating his assertion into our terms, Chatterjee sees resource instability yielding system stability only if the game is not constant-sum - if members of the system can expropriate from external entities. We argue, though, that alliance flexibility allows wholly endogenous adjustments, but only if those adjustments are consistent with the requirements of such stability. We must check, then, whether we can interpret actual resource adjustments as being constrained if not dictated by system stability, and subsidiarily to see what insights we can gain about alliance formation and maintenance.
7 - Great-power alliance formation, 1871–1914
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 215-270
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Summary
The Balance of Power worked with calculation almost as pure as in the days before the French Revolution. It seemed to be the political equivalent of the laws of economics, both self-operating. If every man followed his own interest, all would be prosperous; and if every state followed its own interest, all would be peaceful and secure.
A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954, p. xx)To give meaning to the factual raw material of foreign policy… we put ourselves in the position of a statesman who must meet a certain problem of foreign policy… and we ask ourselves what the rational alternatives are from which a statesman may choose… and which of these rational alternatives this particular statesman, acting under these circumstances, is likely to choose. It is the testing of this rational hypothesis against the actual facts and their consequences that gives meaning to the facts of international politics and makes a theory of politics possible.
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (1959, p. 5)It is one thing to formulate a set of assumptions and to deduce consequences; it is another thing to relate those assumptions and deductions to reality in such a way that they facilitate our understanding of events. This is an especially important consideration in the present context since any set of abstract assumptions used to model complex macropolitical processes must be at odds to some extent with what we believe to be true about reality.
9 - Summary and conclusions
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 311-332
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Balance of power reconsidered
Much of what we say in this volume agrees with scholarly intuition about international stability, instability, and the nature of the balance of power. In particular, the idea that the pursuit of narrowly defined national interests can occasion a form of stability that ensures national sovereignty in anarchic systems has been shown to possess both theoretical and empirical foundation. These basic correspondences, however, between our analysis and the intuition the literature offers should not be surprising. We have endeavored to match our assumptions as closely as possible to what others before us identify as the building blocks of a theory of anarchic international systems. Indeed, our analysis matches in its most basic assumption what Waltz (1988, p. 616) cites as the critical component of neorealism: “Because power is a possibly useful means, sensible statesmen try to have an appropriate amount of it. In crucial situations, however, the ultimate concern of states is not for power but for security.” To this outline we have added some formalism and game-theoretic reasoning borrowed from the theory of cooperative games, so if we have done our job well then our conclusions should strike a chord of recognition and understanding. Because we have deliberately sought to uncover the circumstances in which stability emerges in anarchic systems populated by states pursuing a singular objective, our analysis stands forthrightly in the realist tradition, and it should be unsurprising that much of what we have done here parallels the thinking of those whose appreciation of world politics was shaped by such scholars as Claude, Morgenthau, and Taylor.
5 - Preventive war
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 146-186
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Summary
What made the [Peloponnesian] war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta.
Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War (trans. Warner 1954, p. 49)The great wars of history – we have had a world war about every hundred years for the last four centuries – are the outcome, direct or indirect, of the unequal growth of nations.
Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality (1962, pp. 1–2)Whether to invest in additional power resources or to consume some of those that have been accumulated is a perennial issue of foreign policy. Many of the most important choices governments face have to do with the relative weight given to consumption … versus investment, and with devising strategies for action that are both viable in the short run and capable of achieving wealth and power objectives in the long run.
Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony (1984, p. 24)Intuition and a considerable theoretical and empirical literature concur with Thucydides' assertion that the cause of international conflict lies as much with differential growth rates in resources as with the relative power or resources countries enjoy at any specific point in time. Hence, conflicts might not be attributable wholly to some current “imbalance” in military position, but also to the projections of future imbalances and to a corresponding perception by some that only a preventive war can guarantee their security. Indeed, so compelling is the threat of imbalance owing to the growth of some potential adversary, that even domestic constraints on aggressive action and sentiments for peace can be quickly swept aside. As forcefully argued by McNeill (1982, p. 309):
6 - Geography, balancers, and central powers
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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- 24 November 1989, pp 187-214
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The geographic location of a state in the world is of basic importance in defining its problems of security. It conditions and influences all other factors… [and] regional location defines potential enemies and allies and perhaps even the limits of a state's role as a participant in a system of collective security.
Nicholas J. Spykman, The Geography of the Peace (1944, pp. 22–)If a Soviet strategic planner could be granted one wish, it should be to move his country somewhere else.
Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (1987, p. 277)A fundamental difficulty with formulating a fully comprehensive theory of stability in anarchic international systems lies in conceptualizing a country's resources so that we adequately summarize the strategic imperatives of a decision maker seeking to ensure a country or a regime's sovereignty. In his early work on coalitions, the size principle, and the application of cooperative game theory to a formulation of the concept of balance of power, for example, Riker (1962) assumes that such systems are constant- sum games in which winning coalitions are those that control a majority of resources.
3 - System stability and the balance of power
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 75-114
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The balance of power is a system designed to maintain a continuous conviction in every state that if it attempted aggression, it would encounter an invincible combination of the others.
Quincy Wright, A Study of War (1942, p. 254)The aspiration of power on the part of several nations, each trying either to maintain or overthrow the status quo, leads necessarily to a configuration that is called the balance of power and to policies that aim at preserving it The balance of power and policies aimed at its preservation are not only inevitable but are an essential stabilizing factor in a society of sovereign nations.
Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (1973, p. 161)In this chapter and the next, we analyze the consequences of the assumptions offered in Chapter 2 by ascertaining the conditions under which both system and resource stability prevail in n-country systems. In doing so, we are able to resolve much of the confusion between assumptions and conclusions found in earlier attempts to theorize about balance of power. And although our model differs significantly in form from the verbal models that others before us formulate, our principal conclusion accords with the scholarly intuition underlying balance-of-power theories: stability of both sorts is possible.
Contents
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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The Balance of Power
- Stability in International Systems
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Peter C. Ordeshook, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989
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One of the fundamental issues of international relations concerns whether, and under what conditions, stability prevails in anarchic systems, these being systems in which all authority and institutional restraints to action are wholly endogenous. This book uses the tools of game theory to develop a comprehensive theory of such systems and details both necessary and sufficient conditions for stability. The authors first define two forms of stability: system and resource stability. International political systems are said to be stable when no state confronts the possibility of a loss of sovereignty. Resource stability, in contrast, requires that the current distribution of wealth and power among states can change only due to differences in the vitality of economies. The theory developed in this book refines the classic balance-of-power theory and formally incorporates into that theory the consideration of endogenous resource growth, preventive war, war costs and the imperatives of geography, revealing a fundamental conflict between the concepts of 'balancers' and 'central powers'.
Index
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- 24 November 1989, pp 349-359
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4 - Resource stability and the balance of power
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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- 24 November 1989, pp 115-145
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Summary
… disagreements about how benefits should be distributed permeate the relations among actors and persist because bargains are never permanently valid Furthermore, this struggle to make others adjust is played repeatedly. Apparent victory can be illusory or defeat ephemeral, for political bargaining and maneuver result not in definitive choices conferring power on some people rather than others, but in agreements that may in the future be reversed or in discord that signals a continuation of bargaining and maneuver.
Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony (1984, p. 18)This discovery of instability…points up sharply the contrast between economic activity, most of the models for which are self-equilibrating or assume some kind of “dynamic” equilibrium, and political activity, where fundamental instability seems inherent and ineradicable.
William H. Riker, The Theory of Political Coalitions (1962, pp. 173–4)The relevance of system stability to resource stability
Hitherto, our analysis has focused simply on the first part of the game, which concerns international actors. This focus is especially important because it deals with the fundamental issue of sovereignty and the survival of regimes, and it shows how such survival is ensured in anarchic systems. The central thesis of this volume, however, is that there are two types of instability, and we should also be concerned about the possibility that the second type - resource instability - can also upset systems and lead to conflict.
2 - Basic elements of a model and definitions of stability
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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- 24 November 1989, pp 36-74
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Summary
International relations continue to be a recurring struggle for wealth and power among independent actors in a state of anarchy.
Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (1981, p. 7)Classic balance-of-power theory can be interpreted as an hypothesis that in a more-than-two-Power world there are no non-autonomous causes of systemic change;… the purely political aspect of the system's powerpolitical process always tends to produce a stable equilibrium which can be upset, if at all, only by autonomous changes.
Arthur L. Burns, Of Powers and their Politics (1968, p. 249)The balance's underlying principle… was that all the nth disengaged powers would tend to intervene on the side that seemed in danger of losing any ongoing war, to ensure that such a loser was not eliminated from the system and absorbed into an emerging colossus.
George H. Quester, Offense and Defense in the International System (1977, p. 64)Preliminary assumptions
Our objective in this chapter is to elaborate our second scenario of resource competition and survival - a game wherein the only explicit rule defining its structure is that any player can overcome a weaker adversary - so that it more clearly constitutes a model of international conflict and alliances. At the same time, we want to render the concept of equilibrium, implicit in the preceding quotations, analytically precise so that the full implications of egoistic choice in anarchic systems can be uncovered. Before we proceed too far, though, we must be certain that this scenario can model a process as complex as the relations among sovereign states.
Acknowledgments
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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Frontmatter
- Emerson M. S. Niou, Duke University, North Carolina, Peter C. Ordeshook, California Institute of Technology, Gregory F. Rose
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- The Balance of Power
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The Post-Revolutionary Purge of Iran's Armed Forces: A Revisionist Assessment
- Gregory F. Rose
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- Iranian Studies / Volume 17 / Issue 2-3 / Spring Summer 1984
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- 01 January 2022, pp. 153-194
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- Spring Summer 1984
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The popular press and the Iranian exile community have suggested that the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces ceased for the most part to exist as a result of the Islamic Revolution. This view has also been held by some scholars. However, the continued success of the Iranian military on the battlefield against Iraq is strong circumstantial evidence for questioning such a view. While it is true that Iran's professional military fell into considerable desuetude during and after the revolution, this results from other factors, not the postrevolutionary purge of the armed forces. This study will demonstrate the relatively limited scope and impact of the postrevolutionary purge.
The purge of the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces took place in two phases: the first from February 1979 to September 30, 1979, the second from October 1979 to mid- September 1980. Each phase differed in intent, scope, intensity, and method.