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Appendix: Card games played (or avoided) by the middling sort
- Janet E. Mullin
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Summary
The whole [evening] concluding with one game of Whist en famille, at which I am a mere goose; for ‘tis a great science, and requires, too, a degree of memory which I am not possessed of. Quadrille was much better suited to my capacity; but that is out of fashion, it seems, which will cost me many a sixpence.
Brag was a game of chance whose name came from players’ bluffing (‘bragging’) about their cards in an effort to intimidate their opponents. The stakes varied depending on how much one was prepared to bluff; the more a player bet, the more convincing his or her bluff. Brag and similar games were less card games than gambling games that were played with cards; they could just as easily be played with any set of objects. Brag had many variations in how many cards were dealt and which cards were ‘wild’ (able to assume any value). The original game involved three stakes: one for the card of the highest value; the second, for the most valuable combination such as a pair or a flush; and the third, for the hand closest in value to a designated point total (usually 31). The ‘bragging’ was done for the second stake. Brag was very popular with the middling sort, and as may be guessed, it was a forerunner of modern poker.
Commerce was an exchange game for three to twelve people, played with a full deck of fifty-two cards. The goal was to accumulate cards in combinations such as a three of a kind (the most valuable), or a straight flush. Each player bought or traded cards with a player to the left, or with a spare ‘widow’ hand. The hand ended when one player ‘knocked’ in the hope that their hand was a winner; at that point, all hands would be shown and the best won the pool. Commerce was a relatively simple game, so a favourite with children and the adults who played with them.
Cribbage was essentially a two-handed game which could also be played with three or four (partners). Each hand had two strategic parts: the forming of combinations that would score well, and the playing out of those cards in sequence to score points. The game consisted of multiple hands, and the first player to reach a designated number of total points was the winner.
5 - Morality issues
- Janet E. Mullin
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Summary
Gaming is a fever … it is the grossest impiety to the Majesty of Heaven … it destroys the sweetest temper, ruins the best constitution, hurts our fortune, and injures our family.
Cards were at first for benefits design’d, Sent to amuse, and not enslave the mind: From good to bad how easy the transition! For what was pleasure once, is now perdition.
AS England's obsession with gaming grew over the eighteenth century, all types of play came under increasingly intense attacks from moralists and reformers of various stripes. Taking full advantage of a free press and a flourishing market for published materials, these writers and artists supplied that market with messages and images warning of the perils of gaming. Some regarded reliance on the forces of chance as inimical to society and a threat to the future, moral and material, of the nation. Others stressed the idle and wicked use of time, that irreplaceable resource, on mindless games; still others grumbled at the squandering of money that could have been put to so many worthier uses. Readers and viewers, literate or otherwise, were relentlessly reminded of the criminal element that hovered close to the gaming table, and of the financial, social, and spiritual damage inflicted on innocent families of players.
These commentaries were originally aimed at the governing aristocracy, whose deep play and late hours had become notorious. More and more, however, as men and women of all ranks mingled their money and their personal space, anti-gaming attacks diffused across class boundaries. What was immoral for one group had become immoral for all. If vice had spread from the top down, then morality must follow the same path: for the lower orders to be reformed and improved, the upper and middle classes had to be above criticism themselves. As a result, those in the middling station began to feel the heat, as religious groups railed against card play among the clergy, and professional and commercial men found their integrity and trustworthiness linked to their behaviour and that of their families. Views surrounding play on Sundays and holidays were also in flux, in part because of changing work patterns. Many diarists commented, or significantly failed to comment, on several moral issues surrounding card play.
3 - Hospitable homes
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To Mr Tho. Fuller's in order to spend the evening there, where my wife and I supped (in company with Mr Will. Piper and his wife and brother, Mr John Vine Jr and his wife, and Mr French) on a buttock of beef boiled, a hind quarter of venison roasted, two raisin suet puddings, turnips, potatoes, gravy sauce, pickles etc. We played at brag, and my wife and I (though contrary to custom) won 41/2d.
HOME-BASED hospitality was very much a part of middling life in eighteenth-century England. In diary entries and letters from all parts of the country, in towns, cities and rural homes, people wrote of hosting friends and neighbours and the joys and occasional disasters that that entailed. As anyone who has ever planned a large house party knows, hospitality is hard work; for the rewards to outweigh the costs in effort and expenditure, a great deal of attention must be paid to every detail, from the choice of menu to the amusements on offer.
In reading eighteenth-century middling personal papers, I found that many mentions of hosted gatherings included a variety of card games, even though most of those occasions were not defined by card play. Instead, gaming at cards was a single scene in a more complex social performance, one which required good manners, some degree of experience, and a carefully constructed setting for success. In arranging their card tables and deciding on their menus, middling hosts acted (consciously or otherwise) within a system of expected standards of polite hospitality, and guests played their own roles along similar lines. Card tables became arenas for more than battles at whist and brag, as the often-opposing demands of politeness and exciting play brought emotions to the fore. Were cards a hindrance or a help to hospitality? In this chapter, we will look at card play as part of a more structured sociability, where the guests came by invitation and everyone moved within a framework of formalised expectations.
The home as stage
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the middling home had become a stage and a performance space, and dressing that stage was an exercise in tasteful spending. England's thriving trading economy had made many fortunes, and the rewards fell disproportionately to merchants and professionals.
Acknowledgements
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Contents
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1 - Middling work and play
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The mind of man naturally requires employment, and that employment is most agreeable, which engages, without fatiguing the attention. There is nothing for this purpose of such universal attraction as cards.… The alternate changes in play, the hope upon the taking up a new hand, and the triumph of getting a game, made more compleat from the fear of losing it, keep the mind in a perpetual agitation, which is … too agreeable to be quitted for any other consideration.
I cannot allow any pleasures to be innocent, when they turn away either the body or the mind of a Tradesman from … the application both of his hands and head to his business; those pleasures and diversions may be innocent in themselves, which are not so to him.
AT first glance, the middle classes might be thought of as an unlikely group to indulge in play for money. In an age of unlimited business and personal liability, of uncertain commerce, and of new and vulnerable investment markets, their fortunes and possessions were unprotected and ruin was always a possibility. Time was a precious commodity in itself and not lightly given over to frivolous pursuits. Even in such circumstances, however, people found ways to enjoy their favourite pastimes. The middling sort were, in fact, uniquely qualified to play prudently, relying on the habits and characteristics of their widely varying trades and professions to construct a safety net that allowed them to combine prosperity with play within limits.
The Complete Tradesman: work ethic and professionalism
Historians agree that the eighteenth century's ‘middling classes’ did not constitute a self-conscious ‘middle class’; that sort of coalescence did not occur in England until the nineteenth century. However, merchants, skilled tradesmen, and professionals did have a distinct sense of common purpose, the roots of which extended back to the guilds of the Middle Ages. The eighteenth-century business ideal owed a great deal to the collective honour and fair dealing of the guild structure, while borrowing standards of sober industry and honesty from religious traditions. These values made trust and its financial counterpart, credit, possible, which in turn fostered the smooth function of cooperative commercial networks. Such shared standards, drummed into middling children from an early age, fostered a sense of collective identity, which was strengthened by a shared social network and common amusements.
Bibliography
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Index
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![](http://static.cambridge.org/content/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:book:9781782045700/resource/name/9781782045700i.jpg)
A Sixpence at Whist
- Gaming and the English Middle Classes, 1680-1830
- Janet E. Mullin
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Enlightenment thinking - the drive for order, organisation and rationality - was an underlying motive force in England's eighteenth century, influencing middle class thinking with regard to the running and improvement of business. In the same way, it shaped their choice of leisure activities. As many turned their backs on blood sports, they found that music, conversation and cards embodied rational enjoyment and exercise of human intellect and ability.For the middle classes, card play made use of skills they had in hand and could be justified on the basis of teaching the young their numbers and the importance of accounting for money lost and won. The careful score-keeping, the accounting for sums won and lost, and the order and discipline of these players' favourite card games echoed and suited their tidy lives. As important participants in polite society on the strength of their new wealth and their increasing social prominence, the middle classes embraced the agreeable pastimes of gentility while rejecting its dangerous extremes. Card play became a means of forming and reinforcing social and commercial bonds within complex webs of family and business circles. As they tugged the fashionable activity of gaming onto their own playing-field from the high-risk arena of the aristocracy, the middle classes were imposing order on disorder, subjecting a reckless activity to new restraints. Drawing on the personal papers of the commercial and professional classes of eighteenth-century England, 'A Sixpence at Whist' tells the stories of these men and women at play.Janet E. Mullin is Lecturer in History at St. Thomas University and the University of New Brunswick, both in Fredericton, N.B., Canada.
Frontmatter
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6 - Risk and the middling sort
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Summary
The Situation of our Country inclines us to Commerce, and the Genius of our People determines them to Play. The Merchant often risks his whole Effects in one Bottom [ship-load], and the Gentleman often hazards all his Estate upon one Rubber [of cards] … their Designs are the same, equally tending to advance their Family, and to serve their Country.
COMMERCE has always been a risky venture, rife with variables and unknowns, a ship at the mercy of sudden and often-mysterious forces. From the outset of a tradesman's career, potential pitfalls yawned before him. How large a shop should he keep? How much stock, and of what quality, should fill its shelves? How much credit should be extended to buyers, and how much borrowing would be needed for start-up? Each of these questions, and all the others that went along with them, could determine the course of the fledgling business and the prosperity of its owner; each choice carried its own load of risk. Similar decisions confronted newly qualified professionals. Could clients of a neighbouring law practice be approached without endangering one's professional ties? Could a young physician afford to keep a coach? Could he afford not to? As Margaret Hunt argues, the middle classes faced probably the highest financial risks of any group in eighteenth-century England, owning no mortgageable land yet responsible for managing and increasing their personal- and businessbased credit.
With ruin always a possibility for the merchant and professional classes, its members sought security from the debtor's prison in reputations for honesty and hard work, including a thorough knowledge of the market and one's place within it. Those who earned such reputations attracted investors, and in lean times were able to get cash loans, which were often crucial to surviving short-term crises. To contemporaries, undue risk was a major cause of business failure in the eighteenth century; over-extending oneself was often the last mistake a businessman got the chance to make. Writers of the period urged merchants to strive for profit while staying on the safe side of investment: security was the watchword, comfortable gains the goal. The very virtues that kept businesses afloat were the ones coalescing into what are today called middleclass values: integrity, attention to detail, a relentless work ethic.
2 - Family time
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At home with Wife in Even by fireside settling Accounts &c&c – and played with her at Van’une [Vingt’un] & won 7/6.
The evening went of [sic] as usual, my little boy in high spirits playing cards with his Mama.
FOR the middling sort of England's eighteenth century, life turned on the axis of the home. There were formed the values one expressed in the wider world; there, genteel manners became habit and were taught to children. Middling men and women crafted an image of self at home, and to one degree or another, that image shaped the face they showed to the world in public spaces. The ways in which they governed their home lives, and the choices they made for their families, reflect both their own upbringings and the circles in which they moved as adults, as members of a fashionably genteel and polite society.
If middling play began at home – and the surviving written record insists that it did – the decision to play cards, to wager stakes, was taken against the background of contemporary public discourse on home life in general, and on gaming in particular. Since the middling sort did not see themselves as the subject of such commentary, they felt free to indulge in their favourite games in their choice of settings. In bringing their children up to play within the limits they observed themselves, were they arming those children against reckless behaviour in their adult lives? This chapter will explore the ways in which the middling sort enjoyed informal, impromptu games, and the family life that those games reveal.
Home-makers: middling wives and the domestic space
The eighteenth century witnessed a seismic shift in what made and defined ‘home’, particularly for the middle classes. A range of scholars now agree that both the physical setting and the personal sense of middling home life had radically changed, influenced by their new wealth and the goods on which they spent it. New rooms – the dining-room and the (with)drawing room – were being created for entertaining friends and colleagues, and a new sense of domesticity, of home space, of privacy, was dawning. While the man of the house was the nominal head of this space, the running of the home was, overwhelmingly, a woman's job; the home had become the venue for wifely agency as good and virtuous homemaker.
4 - Crowded stages
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Summary
Stamford has been very gay this Winter, with Balls Concerts and Card partys wch has ingag’d us almost Every Day in the week.
IN this chapter, we shift our focus to a grander scale of middling sociability: to balls, assemblies, resort towns, and the play that happened there. In moving from the drawing rooms of private homes to larger and more widely accessible locales, sociability moved into a new and ambiguous space, a semi-public space. In such arenas, the potential for social disaster was magnified, and the pressure to shine more intense. Middling players found themselves paying close attention to the fine points of selfpresentation, displaying not only their material wealth and good taste but also their genteel manners and good carding sense.
Assemblies
Arrivd between 5&6 got some Tea, dressd and went to the Card Assembly a very good one and a little dance about 8 Couple … we parted before 12.
About eleven the [Assembly] Room was very full of company … dancd two dances with Mr Hasell, playd at Cards with the Penrith party left the Room about one.
The home-based sociability we saw in Chapter 3 was predicated on a small, select guest list, suitable to the size and amenities of the middling home. When social circles became too large to be comfortably hosted in most middling homes, a new space was needed, one that could provide the standard of hospitality that polite society had come to expect. Assemblies and balls solved this problem neatly, permitting large, mixed-sex groups to dance, gossip, and play their favourite games in comfort. As these new entertainments became popular, purpose-built assembly rooms appeared in shire towns and county seats, and smaller towns turned to their inns to provide suitable space for genteel gatherings. In balancing the leisure requirements of large groups with the admission controls still desired by polite society, assemblies became the first truly semi-public venues for card play.
The assembly was an eighteenth-century invention. Large, wellattended balls with such extras as tea and card tables were first held in spa and resort towns and, like so many other leisure trends, were adopted throughout England as travellers returned to their own homes. The fashion was quickly taken up by the burgeoning London ‘Season’, which became justly famous for its busy winter-long round of entertainments and cultural offerings.
Conclusion
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Summary
Riches, cards, and duelling, have furnished constant topics for abuse … and yet [people] will still hoard, play, and fight. Why should they? All universal passions we may fairly pronounce to be natural, and should be treated with respect. The gratification of our passions are our greatest pleasures … provided we pay no more for pleasure than it is worth.
A Sixpence at Whist has been all about choices. In deciding how to spend their hours away from the shop and the office, the people of England's eighteenth-century middle classes had more options than ever before. While some of the newer fashions were small-scale – a shopping excursion, hosting a small party to tea – others afforded new opportunities to perform on the wider stage of the assembly or the pleasure garden, and to watch others do the same. For the middling sort, reputation was key to survival: they needed to consider every professional and public move they made, lest it damage their name, their firm's name, their family's name, and the creditworthiness that went with them. And when they came to consider what leisure activities they could safely and comfortably enjoy, they employed similar criteria. What sort of social settings were most respectable? Which offered the most return on their sociability investment, and what company would work most to their advantage? Within those settings, when cards were on offer, choices again presented themselves: to play or not to play? Which games to play, and where to play them? How much to bet? How late to stay, and at whose table?
The pattern of play created by the answers to these and other questions is a remarkably, even overwhelmingly, consistent one. In the diaries, letters, account books, and other personal writings of middling people, the dominant image is of sociable play: people playing cards and mingling their coins in the process of enjoying one another's company. Even card clubs, nominally formed with play as their primary purpose, were clearly conscious of the pleasure of getting together with friends, and of what was needed to enjoy their meetings to the full. Naturally, they made the most of their chances to display their fine feathers and their elegant manners, and access to business contacts and the marriage market was an incentive for many; but ultimately, these people played, first and foremost, for fun.
Introduction
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Summary
Mr and Mrs Bodham of Mattishall and with them a Miss Rolfe from Swaffham, dined and spent the Afternoon with us. We knew nothing of their coming till this morning at breakfast. The Note was desired to be sent to us last night. We were rather put to for a Dinner in so short a time however we did our best … After, or rather at Coffee and Tea we got to Quadrille at which I lost at 2d per fish, 0. 3. 0. About 7 o’clock our Company left us. We spent a very agreeable day indeed.
FOR the Reverend James Woodforde and his housekeeper-niece Nancy, breakfast ended abruptly on that August morning. Scrambling to put together an afternoon meal that would do justice to the parsonage and to their soon-to-arrive guests, the two succeeded beyond expectations, and provided a spread that included veal, mutton, cold beef, steak pie, and pudding. Mr Woodforde's pleasure in the ‘very agreeable day’ he gave his unexpected company was not unmixed with triumph at their achievement, his three-shilling loss at cards notwithstanding. His household had been tested and had not been found wanting; his reputation for hospitality and sociability was, if anything, heightened. He could retire happily to bed and sleep the sleep of the successful middling host.
Over the eighteenth century, England's commercial and professional classes were caught up in a wave of prosperity, fed by the rapid rise of the import trade and, later, home-grown manufacturing. Their new wealth allowed them, in growing numbers, to sample the delights of genteel living and home-based hospitality, to venture into the fashionable world of assemblies and routs, and to spend on more than the bare essentials of living. Their sociability now acquired a gloss of fashionable consumption, so that guests might be seated at mahogany dining-room tables, might eat from delicately painted Chinese porcelain, might bask in the gleam of candlelight reflected from the finest silver-plated wall sconces.
Could other, riskier fashions infiltrate the lives of the middling sort? Were they, potentially, a vast pool of gamesters, a greater danger to the nation's prosperity even than their upper-class fellow players? The English passion for gaming – games or pastimes that included a money stake – began a sharp rise with the Restoration, and was well established and justly (in)famous by the turn of the eighteenth century.
7 - Miscreant sons and the middling sort
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I have a letter from William, He has been a Gambler – but has left it off – upon his Word as an Officer and a Gentleman he will play no more! – begs I will not cast him off.
FOR the middling sort of eighteenth-century England, reputation was king. In that era of unlimited liability and fierce competition, being known for good sense and sound business or professional practice might make the difference between solvency and the debtor's prison, between prosperity and dismal failure. Credit, that ‘mighty nice touchy lady’, gave her favours only to those who guarded their good name jealously and were forever watchful for the least whisper of scandal. The family name must remain unsullied, the family character unimpeachable.
Imagine, then, the distress of a middling father on learning that a son – especially an eldest son – had been guilty of the very fashionable vice of gaming for large sums. The actions of a son reflected on his father's name and reputation, and his duty to his father demanded more than mere obedience. ‘Every deviation from integrity should be guarded against, and accounted as inexcusable on any principle; because one deviation leads to another.… The only way assuredly to avoid continuing in evil is never to let it begin.’ A few young men slid well down that slippery slope and found themselves cut off from families and financial supports; many more hastened to the feet of their indignant parents and promised reformed behaviour and renewed filial duty. The sowing of wild oats often proved costly to young pride, and damage control often involved drastic, even harsh, actions on the part of fathers. This chapter will discuss the range of middling responses to the misdeeds of errant sons, and the values encoded in those responses.
Fathers and sons
Like all fathers in this period, the middling paterfamilias had, at least in theory, absolute authority over his household and its dependants; his will constituted the family's will, and his children owed him respect and obedience. He had a particular responsibility to shape the next generation of men, worthy sons for England, men of good sense and conscientious stewards of commerce or profession. At the same time, he must not hobble his sons with over-much restraint; careful men they must be, but they must be men.
List of Illustrations
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Dedication
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Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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