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10 - Exhibiting archives
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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- Preserving Archives
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Summary
Introduction
Why put irreplaceable material at risk? The main answer to this is that exhibitions are a major way of promoting access to archival material and involving the public and staff in a topic of mutual interest. All the activities connected with exhibitions, such as the publication of catalogues, production of facsimiles for sale, group visits and publicity, are major concerns of those involved with outreach. For those involved with preservation the essential requirement is to match these needs with adequate security and preservation standards, while not inhibiting or dampening the enthusiasm and talent of colleagues. The crucial factors are collaboration and understanding; exhibitions involve planning and co-operating, compromise and change. Once others understand the concerns of all, the process becomes easier but communication in the first instance is vital. If the parameters relating to standards of exhibition are laid out at the very beginning much less can go wrong. This chapter covers:
• minimizing the associated risks
• policies, standards and guidelines for exhibitions
• managing the care of documents in exhibitions
• planning and preparing for an exhibition.
How can the overall risk be minimized?
The easiest way of minimizing the risk is to set out an exhibition policy and procedure with which everyone agrees. This may involve not only a simple statement of aims for internal use but also a more detailed policy and set of procedures for external loans. The organization will benefit from being very clear about what it will and will not display, outside borrowers will understand the limits of what can be borrowed and why, and staff will appreciate the concerns of other colleagues. Drawing up such a document may take some time, but plenty of examples are available to suggest the main headings. It is very unwise to wait until an exhibition is suggested; policies developed in a hurry under the pressure of a particular project are never satisfactory. Consider:
• the purposes of exhibiting archival material and the authority by which the archive does so
• the scope of exhibitions and the capacity of the organization to mount them
• whether the policy of the organization is to display originals or facsimiles
• the location – whether on the premises or elsewhere.
2 - Understanding archival materials and their characteristics
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
Archival materials are complex in their manufacture and use, and some understanding of their history and different characteristics is important for successful preservation. The chemistry involved is largely the preserve of conservators undertaking pure and applied research, but some basic knowledge, particularly of modern materials, is necessary. Paper and parchment constitute the vast majority of carriers – excluding magnetic materials and electronic media – in most archives in the UK and many other countries. Other materials, such as palm leaves or bark, are found elsewhere in the world, but are rare in Europe and are not covered here. Understanding the problems of different materials is one thing; finding the solutions is quite another and these will depend upon the circumstances in each archive. There are, however, two exceptions; these relate to nitrate-based and cellulose acetate-based film, both of which may deteriorate quickly, or in the worst case, self-combust or explode, if action is not taken upon discovery of degradation.
This chapter looks at the structure and manufacture of the materials most commonly found in UK and many other archives throughout the world, including:
• paper
• parchment
• inks
• photographic materials
• audiovisual materials
• optical materials
• tapes
• discs
• digital storage media.
Paper
Paper is the material most widely used for archives and therefore merits particular attention. The materials from which it is made have varied over time, resulting in more or less stability; this ref lects the common perception of paper as a disposable product, but in practice it is a remarkably resilient writing medium.
The development of paper
The Chinese invention of paper in AD105, as an alternative writing medium to silk or cloth, has traditionally been associated with ’i Lun, of Hunan province, although some recent discoveries suggest that it was being used at least a century earlier. Wadding has also been discovered in a tomb in Shanxi province but the structure provides no evidence of fibre beating, an essential operation which forms the hydrogen bondings which distinguish sheet paper from wadding.
In the Western world paper began to rival papyrus in the late eighth century AD, although Chinese paper makers are known to have been in Turkey as early as 648 and had passed on the art to the Arabs by the middle of the eighth century.
8 - Creating and using surrogates
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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- 31 March 2013, pp 123-138
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Summary
Introduction
Surrogates – the production of a user copy of the original – have a major role in preservation management, as they reduce the wear and tear on originals and in many cases enhance access. Developing a programme should therefore be an option for all archives, but it must be recognized that all interests, including those of the readers, should be taken into account. Policy decisions will have to be considered if surrogates are to be offered to readers; will it be obligatory to use them and are there copyright issues, especially if they are available online? These issues need to be debated and agreed by the archive, since they will undoubtedly be raised at some point by readers.
Debates about different methods, the reasons for copying, and the associated costs of creation and upkeep have ranged widely over the past 50 years. Until recently such discussions have been centred largely on copying for the purposes of preservation. Access issues, however, have always crept in, emphasizing the difficulty of isolating one from the other. The development of digital methods of copying information has given increasing prominence to access issues, leading to change and enlargement of archive and library access policies, plans and costs. These are issues which are likely to loom larger in the future. Preservation is no longer the main focus.
This chapter looks at:
• the different types of copies
• the preservation issues surrounding the creation of surrogates
• the changing policies of archives on copying
• the actions needed to ensure that original materials are treated appropriately if they are copied.
It does not describe the technical requirements or standards for equipment, which can be found in the appropriate manuals.
Copying archive material
Reformatting for preservation whether utilizing analog or digital technologies is a series of choices all affected by economics, legal or social conventions, and decisions about risk management.
(Bellinger, 2003)Decisions to copy, as Bellinger states, involve a host of choices, all of which require judgement about condition and access, and some of which may be controversial. Nevertheless, they must be made and priorities established; the alternative could be the total loss of information and therefore access to it. Risk management looms large in debates about copying.
2 - A conservation workshop
- from Appendices
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Establishing an in-house conservation workshop is a choice to be made by each archive, weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing the work against the capital cost, employment costs and ongoing commitment of an in-house resource. Either way it will be a senior management decision, with the appropriate need for support. Quantifying the need for conservation work, following an appraisal of the general condition of the material (see Chapter 14) is essential before making any decisions.
If the decision is to establish a new workshop in-house an expert will be required to install and manage it. This is likely to be a senior conservator and appointing someone initially with the appropriate accreditation and skills will have major benefits for the project; planning a building programme and a conservation programme will be part of the job specification. Additional staff will be needed but the number will depend on the amount of work to be undertaken and the skills required; resources to meet these needs may only be possible when specified as part of an externally funded project. Conservators will contribute to preservation activities such as monitoring the conditions in the strongrooms and assisting with disaster control and can also run volunteer programmes for basic preservation work such as cleaning and dusting volumes or flattening large documents for protective boxing. Administrative assistance will be needed in large workshops as treatment records (including digital photographs) need to be kept; documents need to be checked in and out of the workshop and materials and equipment ordered and maintained. In smaller workshops, conservation staff will undertake these tasks.
Planning
Planning the installation project is a shared activity between the archivist, the conservator, the architect and the engineer; clearly it must fit within the overall business plan of the archive and adequate time must be allowed to plan the project properly. Visits to other institutions to view any new, or benchmark facilities are vital. Robust specifications, rigorously drawn up, tested and scrutinized are the basis of a successful project. The location of the workshop will depend on whether the facility is to be part of a new build for the whole organization or is to be an adaptation of a part of an existing building.
3 - Managing digital preservation
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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- 31 March 2013, pp 25-40
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Summary
Introduction
To the archivist the need to preserve selected digital information of long-term value is fairly self-evident, but to many of those involved in the creation of data the importance of strategies for preservation is not so obvious. Assumptions are made about the longevity of digital information which are quite unfounded, even when the evidence of the potential fragility of the medium is there for all to see. Archivists and records managers have to develop new approaches and engage earlier to ensure that serious loss of information does not take place in the context of rapidly rising use of the technology. Digital preservation is a much more stable technique than it was even ten years ago, but the discussions and debates surrounding it need to be translated into active strategies, adopted by all organizations with a concern for the future of their documentation.
This chapter looks at:
• why digital preservation is important
• why it is perceived as difficult
• what decisions are needed to ensure that the appropriate digital material is preserved over time
• who should be involved
• how to start and maintain the process.
This chapter does not deal with the technical aspects of digital preservation; advice on this is best sought from the national archives of the relevant country, such as The National Archives (TNA) or organizations such as Digital Preservation Coalition (DPC) in the UK, and in the USA, the National Digital Stewardship Alliance or the impressive guidance and developmental work carried out by the Library of Congress. The DPC is a consortium of library, archive and research organizations, brought together to pool ideas, promote best practice and publish research on digital preservation issues.
Why is digital preservation management important?
Digital preservation (the act of ensuring enduring access to electronic material) is rarely undertaken by the same person who deals with the more traditional forms of archive preservation. Increasingly, however, it is essential for all archivists to understand some of the management principles and strategies adopted to achieve it and the contribution that different professions can make to this. The most important point is that building preservation into any digital project at the outset is much easier, more efficient and vastly cheaper than attempting to preserve, or re-create the material at a later stage.
7 - Managing risks and avoiding disaster
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
Disaster planning is truly not for the faint of heart.
(Wellheiser and Scott, 2002, iv)Avoiding disaster is an aspiration shared by many archives but disasters are adequately guarded against by few. Even after well over 20 years of publicity about the benefits of taking precautions, the value of risk assessment and the ultimate cost to an organization that suffers a disaster, embryo plans still lie unfinished, staff are still untrained and mutual help partnerships have not been forged. Articles, websites and manuals abound, but taking the first initiative still appears to be difficult in too many archives, as the above quotation hints. Little recognition is given by those in responsible positions to the long-term damage that could be caused by a disaster, not only to the documents in physical terms but also in terms of the effect on the staff, the users and the depositors. For businesses the result can be catastrophic; why should it be any different for archives?
This chapter includes:
• the reasons for developing disaster planning
• definitions
• responsibilities
• priorities for salvage
• development of a disaster control plan
• implementation of the plan
• insurance
• partnerships.
Why undertake an ‘operation-hope-not’?
The goals must be clear to all those involved, otherwise confusion will take over. They include:
• knowing, assessing and mitigating risk
• the maintenance of service
• avoiding or minimizing loss and damage to the holdings
• knowing who to call on for necessary assistance.
Recent experiences in many countries have emphasized the value of speedy recovery of information to those whose vital records have been in a disaster. But the success of these operations depends on the professional skills of those brought in to rescue the documentation. It must be remembered that a disaster is a disaster; it is not going to be cheap or easy to return to the previous status quo.
Flood disaster recovery, York, UK
Unprecedented flooding in the autumn of 2000 resulted in vital files being inundated but then rescued and air-dried at the Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, in order to allow the owners to resume business as fast as possible. The successful elements of the operation included
• a good understanding of the needs of the stricken organization
• adaptable planning and innovative solutions.
4 - Archive buildings and their characteristics
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
Archive buildings are the first stage of protection for the materials kept within them and, as such, are crucial in ensuring survival. Archive buildings, of greater and lesser complexity, have been developed from this basic premise all over the world, adapted to differing climates and the needs of the archives themselves. The importance of understanding the need to build them in the right place, of constructing them in an appropriate way, and of employing experienced practitioners to minimize the threats posed to fragile materials, cannot be overestimated. Likewise, the issues surrounding the adaptation of buildings for use as archives must be appreciated and considered.
This chapter looks at:
• the ways in which archive buildings have developed internationally and in the UK in particular
• issues to consider before constructing an archive or adapting an old building
• how to get ideas over to an architect
• exterior and interior layouts and specifications.
How has the concept of archive buildings developed?
Continuity of custody in secure ownership constitutes the fundamental guarantee of archival authenticity. Hence, security has always been at the forefront of all decisions on the storage of archival material. This is obvious from the choice of storage places over time – for example, the Qumran caves in which the Dead Sea Scrolls (from 200 BC) were hidden, the massive bronze chests in the Forbidden Palace in Beijing in which documents of the Chinese dynasties were stored from the 15th century, and the construction of the Lyndon B. Johnson Museum and Library to house presidential papers of the 20th century. The concept that a building must also be attractive to users and staff is of more recent origin, and has been achievable partly as a result of applying modern technology, including electronic security. This change also mirrors the recognition that public archives are the documents of the people, who have a right to access information and to consult both historic and contemporary documents.
How did archive buildings develop in the UK?
Keeping the documents of the Crown, and subsequently of central government, safe was a major concern in the UK from the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066.
1 - Introducing archive preservation
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
Preservation of archives is the means by which the survival of selected material is ensured for enduring access. Perceptions that archivists preserved materials just for the sake of it are out of date and incorrect, if indeed they were ever correct; preservation and access are two parts of the same mission. Without sustained preservation activity it would not be possible to satisfy the myriad of users worldwide who beat a path to the door of archives and record offices, or who search for information on the web. Using archives has become a popular pastime for young and old, whether they are researching family history, requesting information under Freedom of Information Acts or pursuing historical facts. This increasing trend is unlikely to reverse and more than ever organizations must ensure that the material will be available, not only to the current generation but also to those of the future. Organizations must, as a matter of policy, look beyond their immediate requirements and utilize strategies and techniques to ensure that the originals, or if that is impossible the information contained in them, will be available for as long as needed. This book is designed to give readers the tools to manage preservation issues; it is not a manual on how to cope with every eventuality as these differ widely and advice for one archive might be quite inappropriate for another. Alongside this is the key intention; to act as a lead and guide for the varying needs, questions and research of fellow professionals charged with the responsibility of preservation.
How has the relationship between conservation and
preservation developed?
Once, looking after documents was within the remit of all curatorial members of staff, many of whom no doubt undertook basic repairs to the best of their rather limited ability. In the 1950s and 1960s archive conservation began to develop as a distinct skill – one which, given their increasing responsibilities in other directions, curators were happy to cede to conservators. At that time conservation was a wide-reaching term embracing many aspects of what is now included under the umbrella of preservation. Since then, those employed as archive conservators have become specialists in the intervention techniques required to stabilize badly damaged material.
14 - Putting preservation into practice
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
The previous chapters have covered many of the issues encountered by archives when trying to preserve their holdings, often against a background of increasingly tight budgets and the inexorable rise in expectations of public services. Those who oversee preservation programmes have to ensure that all the relevant issues over enhanced access are discussed, that the needs of the documents, in whatever format, are considered and costed and that the effect of improving services does not shackle future generations with mounting preservation or storage costs. They have to present well argued choices for preservation strategies, and they have to manage preservation in an environment which may be financially stringent, politically pressured or is developing strategically in other directions. How can it be done? This chapter covers
• choices and weighing up the options
• responsibilities
• policies and strategies
• benchmarking and preservation assessment
• costs and funding
• planning a programme over time.
Choices and options
Choosing the right preservation tactics at the right time does much to ensure success. Fortunately several options are available and no archive has to undertake all of them all the time. The choice may appear bewildering to those who are desperately trying to do anything but the trick lies in a measured approach, often spread over several years, matching the activity to the resources available at any one time. The result should be that the archive has a well embedded, coherent preservation programme which recognizes and mitigates risk while allowing as much access to the holdings as possible.
Details of how to develop such a strategy follow, but it is important to review the options available in particular circumstances. These have been discussed in previous chapters and may, or should, include in some cases:
• regular building maintenance
• dry, cool storage
• adequate storage space
• a boxing programme
• good security procedures
• conservation facilities, or a budget for conservation
• digital preservation arrangements
• a disaster control programme
• an integrated pest management programme
• a surrogacy programme
• document handling training for readers and staff.
Preface to the Second Edition
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Preserving Archives is a guide for all those with a responsibility for archival or special collections on the issues to be dealt with in developing successful preservation policies and strategies. While the chapters build up to implementation, they can also be read individually if required. Some archives will need advice on specific problems, others will require assistance with developing more general programmes. The reader can pick and choose as necessary; the notes and references, example boxes in the text and bibliography present further guidance for those who require more specific details.
The text is based on lectures given to successive cohorts of postgrad uate archive students in the UK, from those who have recently taken their first degree to those who are acquiring a professional qualification at a later stage in their careers. Preserving Archivesis intended to act as an aide-mémoire for them and their successors as students, as well as others who may need assistance in a particular situation. The book can be used as an overall guide or as a reference source for a particular area of practice. And it is not only for archivists: librarians and museum curators are also often faced with difficult decisions to make on preservation and much of what is included applies to paper-based materials held in other organizations. National and international examples are given and referred to, making comparisons possible and introducing the reader to a wider picture than just the UK. While there will clearly be national differences, many of the baseline and guiding principles will be evident in all forms of collection management and it is for the individual users to refer to their own national standards where appropriate.
The importance of understanding more traditional archival materials is underlined by its prime place at the beginning of the book, followed by the equally important topic of preserving digital material. The crucial role played by archival buildings, the security within them and the importance of good storage conditions for the archival materials are central to the text, followed by an emphasis on developing strategies to mitigate disasters. Clear guidance is given on how to manage and develop policies for the use of surrogates in both analogue and digital formats.
Bibliography
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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British and international standards relating to archive preservation
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Acknowledgements
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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9 - Moving the records
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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- 31 March 2013, pp 139-158
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Summary
Introduction
Moving all or part of an archive is a daunting experience and one which needs to be approached in a very organized way. It is highly likely that many archivists will have to organize a move at some point in their careers. A successful move will ensure that:
• the material is undamaged by either the move or the new surroundings into which it is put
• access to the materials is interrupted for as little time as possible.
That said, any move is a serious risk which needs to be minimized as far as possible by good planning and efficient execution. This chapter looks at:
• the risks involved in moving archives
• managing the move
• briefing a removal firm
• the equipment required
• preparing for the move
• the move itself.
What are the risks?
Listing the preservation risks offers a good way to identify those which can be reduced and those which will have to be monitored throughout the process. Any of the following might be a problem:
• If there is a lack of clarity about the scope and purpose of the move it will be very difficult to retain control over the operation. Both scope and purpose should be spelt out in detail to inform those who are involved and clarify their roles.
• The parent organization – e.g. business, university or local authority – may not fully understand the requirements of the archive for moving.
• A complete move of an archive involves many factors and requires logistical expertise which may not be available in- house. Even a small move within an archive is complicated.
• The decision to move may not leave sufficient time or budget for the operation to be undertaken in the optimum way. Skimping on time for planning will affect the success of the outcome and introduces additional hazards. Poor budgeting will lead to risks that essential preservation procedures, such as boxing and wrapping, are not undertaken or too few staff are involved to guarantee the safety of the archive.
• If the material is in poor condition or is not adequately protected it risks additional damage in transit, and subsequent inaccessibility to readers.
Index
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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4 - UCL Library Services: Volunteer Agreement
- from Appendices
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Reproduction of the UCL Volunteer Agreement, and information about UCL Library Services Volunteering activities, is reproduced here with kind permission from UCL.
I …….…………………………………………………… (name of volunteer) agree to work as a volunteer for UCL Library Services and I freely commit myself to a placement / project and to
• give active support to the objectives of UCL Library Services and to perform the voluntary duties which I have freely accepted to the best of my ability.
• read and accept the UCL Library Services Volunteer Policy, plus all the institution's regulations and instructions on security, health and safety, fire and other emergency procedures and confidentiality of information.
• take part in the UCL Library Services induction procedures (where appropriate) and accept training for the role where necessary.
• agree to abide by the Library Regulations and the rules governing access to the Library's manuscript collections and College Archives held in the Library, including photographs, films, tapes or machinereadable records. I undertake to indemnify the College and also the owners of any such papers, where applicable, against all claims and actions on the part of other persons arising out of the inclusion in any manuscript of mine, or the disclosure of publication by me in any other way, of any matter taken from the papers consulted which constitutes or may constitute a libel upon any person, an infringement of copyright, or breach of confidence.
• inform the person to whom I report as soon as possible if I am unable to meet my voluntary obligation to UCL Library Service. In the event that we no longer require your voluntary services we will advise you in accordance with UCL Library Services Volunteer Policy. Should you wish to discontinue your voluntary work with us, please inform us as soon as possible in accordance with UCL Library Services Volunteer Policy. This agreement is not a legal document or intended to create the relationship/ responsibilities of employer/ employee.
11 - Handling the records
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
Archive material rarely handled is likely to remain in reasonable condition, even in an adverse environmental situation. In recent years, however, the rate of deterioration of some materials has increased owing not only to a diminution in the quality of archival materials, but also to increasing use. Visitor numbers at British archives have soared in the last 50 years. Archives and local history centres, previously the preserve of antiquarians and academics, have now become the destination for many seeking information of diverse kinds and are promoted for their seemingly inexhaustible supply.
The desire to promote access is irreproachable: the difficulty comes with the inevitable damage caused to the documents as they are endlessly extracted from storage, taken to a distribution centre or reading room, handed over to the reader and then returned.
Lack of resources to conserve every incoming document to the highest standard leaves the organization with no option but to train both staff and readers in the best ways of preventing further deterioration. This chapter covers:
• ways of encouraging and influencing staff and readers to handle documents carefully
• rules for the readers
• equipment for the reading rooms
• training.
The problem
Each time an original document is accessed by a reader, it is handled at least six times, and that will be in a small repository with few staff. In a larger organization it may be handled up to eight times on each occasion, not including the more detailed, page-by-page perusal by the reader. Archives have to take note of the damage being inflicted, often unwittingly. Much of the paper arrives in the archive already well used and in poor condition (see Figure 11.1). Maps are particularly at risk, often having been out in the field, stuffed into a pocket or traced on a drawing board. Photographs, which have become part of everyday life and are to be found in any archive, are equally at risk. Audiovisual material, tapes and optical discs are just as vulnerable to bad handling and poor care.
Improving the quality of care: how can it be achieved?
Any attempt to improve the quality of care of archives will require a number of different approaches.
Frontmatter
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Preserving Archives
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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A brand new and fully updated edition of this seminal work on archival preservation. Access to archival material - the documentary heritage of people all over the world that gives them their identity and ensures their rights - is dependent on the survival of fragile materials: paper, parchment, photographic materials, audiovisual materials and, most recently, magnetic and optical formats. The primary importance of such survival is widely acknowledged but sometimes overlooked in a rush to provide ever better means of access. But without the basic material, no services can be offered. Preservation is the heart of archival activity. Archivists in all types of organizations face questions of how to plan a preservation strategy in less than perfect circumstances, or deal with a sudden emergency. This book considers the causes of threats to the basic material, outlines the preservation options available and offers flexible solutions applicable in a variety of situations. It offers a wide range of case studies and examples from international specialists. This revised edition also includes a new chapter on the management and training of volunteers, reflecting a key concern for many archival institutions. This is a vital handbook for professional archivists, but also for the many librarians, curators and enthusiasts, trained and untrained, in museums, local studies centres and voluntary societies in need of good clear advice
13 - Training and the use of volunteers
- Helen Forde, Jonathan Rhys-Lewis
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Summary
Introduction
One of the key impacts on the success of collection care programmes is the availability of resources – these will vary considerably from institution to institution. Financial resources are becoming increasingly tight for heritage institutions and this presents many additional pressures and challenges. The preservation manager must continue to explore alternative means of addressing the significant needs of the collections. One particular resource that is vital to all elements of preservation is the people to carry out the activities, especially those who can physically process and/or package collections.
Two options are available:
• to extend the activities, capabilities and skills of all members of staff
• to develop programmes and systems to enable the use of volunteers.
In this chapter these two choices are addressed to ensure that they both may become integral elements of preservation planning.
What options for preservation training are available?
The manager has a number of different options for developing staff preservation skills and awareness. Most organizations will identify training needs via a staff appraisal process, but it will also require some knowledge of what is available, especially if specialist needs are identified. Alongside this commitment will be existing responsibilities for specific preservation activities among staff (not necessarily specialist) which might include pest management or environmental monitoring. These activities would ideally be included in individual job descriptions, which in turn presents a stronger imperative to provide training, and consequently to carry out the activity. This training may be provided in the following ways:
• Staff attend subject-specific external seminars and training events.
• Staff attend professional conferences (in the UK and abroad).
• Staff attend training at another organization, one-to-one with another professional.
• Staff who have attended a subject-specific or one-to-one training event provide cascade training for other staff within the organization.
• External trainers are commissioned to provide subject-specific training events.
• Staff attend subject-specific training provided by other specialist members of staff within the organization; this may be as part of a wider induction programme or as part of the preparation for a specific project.