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Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Chap. 33 - NEUROTOXINS: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE
- from PART THREE - FILLERS AND NEUROTOXINS
- Edited by Sorin Eremia, University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine
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- Book:
- Office-Based Cosmetic Procedures and Techniques
- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
- Print publication:
- 08 February 2010, pp 145-150
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Summary
Clostridium botulinum is the Gram-positive soil bacterium most famous in the cosmetic world for its ability to produce the highly sought after neurotoxins. Seven serotypes of C. botulinum exist, each giving rise to an antigenically distinct botulinum toxin, botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type A, B, C1, D, E, F, and G (serotype C2 exists but is cytotoxic and not neurotoxic). All toxins have the ability to bind to motor nerve terminals, become internalized, and block the release of acetylcholine (Ach). However, a complex interplay of several factors, including toxin serotype, potency, duration of action, preparation, volume of dilution, and protein load, creates variation among the neurotoxins. Of the seven distinct neurotoxin serotypes, BoNT type A has been the most scrutinized, studied, and therapeutically successful commercially available form.
The history of how this deadly toxin became available to use as medicine is fascinating and includes work done by many dedicated and astute physicians and scientists. The toxic effect of botulinum toxin was first noted in 1822 by a German physician, Kerner, who described food poisoning caused by ingestion of sausages. It was not until some years later, in 1895, that a Belgian microbiologist, Professor van Ermengen, identified that a bacterium producing a neurotoxin was the cause of botulism in Belgium musicians who became ill after eating sausages. Progress in research was possible after researchers, including Professor Ed Schantz and his colleagues, purified botulinum toxin A in sufficient amount for research.
Chap. 48 - NONABLATIVE LASER TISSUE REMODELING: 1,064-, 1,320-, 1,450-, AND 1,540-NM LASER SYSTEMS
- from PART FOUR - COSMETIC APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT, RADIOFREQUENCY, AND ULTRASOUND ENERGY
- Edited by Sorin Eremia, University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine
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- Book:
- Office-Based Cosmetic Procedures and Techniques
- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
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- 08 February 2010, pp 221-224
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Summary
Lasers utilizing wavelengths of 1,064, 1,320, 1,450, and 1,540 nm were the first nonablative resurfacing modalities. Utilizing technology to cool the surface to protect the epidermis, these lasers effectively heat the dermis selectively, to a limited degree, to stimulate new collagen formation and tightening. The nonablative lasers will be discussed primarily for skin rejuvenation, as other uses, such as for acne scarring and hair removal, are addressed in detail in other chapters. The 1,064-nm wavelength laser reviewed in this section is a long-pulse system, in contrast to the Q-switched units popular for tattoo removal.
The near-infrared lasers induce thermal injury in the dermis, potentially heating and damaging collagen to the point of denaturation. The rate of denaturation is exponentially related to temperature. Because of this relationship, small temperature changes impact denaturation dramatically. The accumulation of denatured material rises exponentially with temperature but proportionally with time, and thus both the amount of energy delivered and exposure duration are important. At critical temperatures, depending on the tissue type, rapid denaturation occurs. In the dermis, the extracellular collagen protein is the dominant material in coagulation (denaturing) because elastin is extremely thermally stable, even at the temperature of boiling water. The melting point for collagen is between 60 and 70 degrees Celsius, and above these temperatures, dermal scars can result. Thus temperature levels within the collagen are critical to causing mild injury, resulting in production of new collagen versus complete denaturation with resultant scarring.
Chap. 46 - ER:YAG
- from PART FOUR - COSMETIC APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT, RADIOFREQUENCY, AND ULTRASOUND ENERGY
- Edited by Sorin Eremia, University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine
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- Book:
- Office-Based Cosmetic Procedures and Techniques
- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
- Print publication:
- 08 February 2010, pp 215-217
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Summary
The Er:YAG laser emits a monochromatic wavelength of infrared light at 2,940 nm, which closely approximates the major peak absorption of water near 3,000 nm. In the water-rich epidermis, laser energy is immediately absorbed, yielding precise tissue ablation with minimal thermal diffusion.
Erbium lasers may be categorized based on their pulse durations, or the time during which cutaneous tissue is exposed to laser energy. Thermal diffusion and collateral spread of laser energy are directly proportional to longer pulse durations.
The short-pulsed erbium laser was initially approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1996 for skin resurfacing as an alternative to the carbon dioxide laser, with the benefits of a shorter recovery period and fewer side effects. With pulse intervals in the microsecond range, effective tissue ablation with minimal collateral damage is safely achieved. Quality-switched (or Q-switched) erbium lasers were also developed with ultrashort pulse durations in the nanosecond range. As a downside, little to no thermal coagulation or tissue contraction occurs with either the short or ultrashort pulse durations due to minimal spread of thermal energy. However, variable-pulsed erbium lasers were recently developed with longer pulse durations, in the millisecond range, with thermal diffusion of laser energy falling somewhere between the traditional erbium and CO2 lasers. Longer pulse durations permit a wider spread of thermal energy, resulting in thermal coagulation of collagen and tissue contraction – an advantage when resurfacing beyond the epidermis.
Chap. 51 - SCITON BROADBAND LIGHT AND ER:YAG MICROPEEL COMBINATION
- from PART FOUR - COSMETIC APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT, RADIOFREQUENCY, AND ULTRASOUND ENERGY
- Edited by Sorin Eremia, University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine
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- Book:
- Office-Based Cosmetic Procedures and Techniques
- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
- Print publication:
- 08 February 2010, pp 232-234
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Summary
Nonablative and minimally ablative facial rejuvenation has become increasingly popular over the last several years. Patients desire less invasive cosmetic procedures with maximal effect and minimal downtime. Despite the tremendous effort going into developing novel treatments, currently available nonablative laser and light therapies have demonstrated minimal to moderate improvement in photoaged skin. Recently, the concept of using two different modalities to treat the photoaged skin has been explored. The idea behind this is that two varying mechanisms that target the same downstream event theoretically could lead to an additive and even possibly a synergistic effect to improve the photoaged skin. There is recent evidence for the effectiveness of sequential combined treatment using a broadband light (BBL) therapy followed by an Er:YAG microlaser peel (Profile, Sciton Inc.) for skin rejuvenation.
BACKGROUND
BBL technology utilizes a polychromatic, noncoherent, continuous band of wavelengths to target multiple aspects of photoaging during a single treatment session. As the primary tissue chromophores are melanin and oxyhemoglobin, both pigmented and vascular lesions may be treated simultaneously, while nonspecific bulk heating stimulates dermal remodeling and new collagen formation. Clinically, this correlates with a concomitant reduction and lightening of melanin containing pigmented lesions, telangiectasia, and baseline erythema as well as a mild to modest softening of fine rhytids. Cutoff filters are used to define and limit the lower end of the wavelength spectrum, depending on the clinical lesions to be treated.