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9 - Emerging and unresolved issues: the example of marine genetic resources of areas beyond national jurisdiction
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- By Marjo Vierros, United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, Charlotte Salpin, Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs of the United Nations, Claudio Chiarolla, Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations, Salvatore Aricò, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
- Edited by Salvatore Aricò, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), France
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- Book:
- Ocean Sustainability in the 21st Century
- Published online:
- 05 May 2015
- Print publication:
- 18 March 2015, pp 198-231
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Summary
9.1 Introduction
While much of the ocean still remains to be explored, it is now known that it is extremely rich in biological diversity, including organisms which are host to unique genetic resources.
While the exact number of marine species is unknown, scientists estimate that there may be 0.7 to 1.0 million marine species, of which approximately 226,000 eukaryotic species have been described (Appeltans et al., 2012). More species were described in the past decade (c.20,000) than in any previous decade. It has been reported that there are approximately 170,000 synonyms; that 58,000–72,000 species are collected but not yet described; and that 482,000–741,000 more species have yet to be sampled. Molecular methods may add tens of thousands of cryptic species. Thus, there may be 0.7–1.0 million marine species. Past rates of description of new species indicate that there may be 0.5 ± 0.2 million marine species. On average, 37% (median 31%) of species in over one hundred recent field studies around the world might be new to science.
Thus, a very large proportion of marine species are yet to be discovered. It is thought that these species live in remote and hard-to-reach environments, such as the deep sea and the seabed, or are microscopic. In fact, the Census of Marine Life estimated that more than a billion types of microbes might live in the oceans (Census of Marine Life, 2010). One drop of seawater may contain as many as 350,000 bacteria and other microorganisms (Knowlton, 2010).
Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines genetic resources as genetic material of actual or potential value. Genetic material is defined as any material of plant, animal, microbial, or other origin containing functional units of heredity. It follows that marine genetic resources are material from marine plants, animals, and microbial or other organisms, and parts thereof containing functional units of heredity of actual or potential value.
2 - Main human uses of ocean areas and resources, impacts, and multiple scales of governance
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- By Marjo Vierros, United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, U. Rashid Sumaila, University of British Columbia, Rolph A. Payet, University of Seychelles
- Edited by Salvatore Aricò, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), France
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- Book:
- Ocean Sustainability in the 21st Century
- Published online:
- 05 May 2015
- Print publication:
- 18 March 2015, pp 21-53
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Summary
2.1 Introduction
The global ocean provides humankind with vital ecosystem goods and services that include the regulation of the Earth's climate, as well as provision of food and other goods, recreation, and spiritual values. The ocean is not only important for the Earth' s economy, but also its environmental balance and survival (Noone et al., 2013).
Human uses of the ocean include fishing (food), shipping, scientific research, the use of genetic resources, mining, underwater cables, energy, water, and recreation. While all those involved in these uses can be considered as ocean stakeholders, the concept of stakeholder is broader than just direct use. Stakeholders can include groups affected by management decisions; groups concerned by management decisions; groups dependent on the resources to be managed; groups with claims over the area of resources; groups with activities that impact on the area or resources; and groups with, for example, special seasonal or geographic interests (Vierros et al., 2006). Ultimately, however, the entire population of the Earth depends in one way or another on the ocean for their survival, due to the climate regulating and oxygen providing services of these areas, and can thus be considered to be stakeholders.
Preserving and maintaining the services provided by the ocean will require integrated, ecosystem-based management approaches and governance structures at both global and local levels, which will take into account both direct human uses and conservation needs, as well as global benefits. Many habitats and species in the ocean are highly threatened by human activities, and the current governance regime is not sufficient and in many cases too fragmented to provide for effective management and protection of multiple and emerging threats
2.2 Value and use of ocean areas, and environmental impacts of use
The goods and services provided by the ocean range from climate regulation to food, and recreational and spiritual value. For example, an analysis undertaken by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) project, found the value of coral reefs to humankind to be between US$130,000 and $1.2 million per hectare, per year (Diversitas, 2009).