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Predicting the Motions of Drifting Open Pack Ice
- Uri Feldman, Philip J. Howarth
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- Journal:
- Journal of Glaciology / Volume 24 / Issue 90 / 1979
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 30 January 2017, pp. 501-502
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Methods based on remotely-sensed data are needed to predict motions of drifting open pack ice and to determine sea-ice parameters associated with these motions. The method presented here is able:
(a) to predict the motions of groups of wind-driven detached ice floes over periods of 12, 36, and 60 h;
(b) to determine sea-ice thickness and the surface and sub-surface drag coefficients associated with these motions.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
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- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Eye Movement Desensitisation Treatment Utilises the Positive Visceral Element of the Investigatory Reflex to Inhibit the Memories of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Theoretical Analysis
- Malcolm J. MacCulloch, Philip Feldman
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- The British Journal of Psychiatry / Volume 169 / Issue 5 / November 1996
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 January 2018, pp. 571-579
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- November 1996
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Background
Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) has attracted controversy and has led to publications covering a wide range of psychological problems treated by EMDR, in particular, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is growing clinical evidence of the effectiveness of EMDR, but a lack of a convincing theoretical basis to explain its rapid effect.
MethodThis paper argues that a combination of Pavlovian and Darwinian theory provide a theoretical explanation for the therapeutic effectiveness of EMDR.
ResultsWe suggest that the investigatory component of the orienting reflex is an evolutionary development enabling organisms to assess their environment for both opportunities and threats. We propose that EMDR is rapidly effective because it is a clinical method of Pavlovian conditioning by which the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex can be paired with clinically-induced noxious memories to remove their negative affect.
ConclusionCompared with established forms of treatment for PTSD, EMDR is rapid, with resulting clinical and economic benefits. Our suggested theoretical basis for EMDR has implications for further explanatory research and for developments in EMDR treatment.
Frontmatter
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp i-vi
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5 - Biological factors
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 139-153
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Summary
Let me have men about me that are fat; Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o' nights. Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look, He thinks too much; such men are dangerous.
Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene IIThis chapter is the first of two concerning the possibility that, with all social and learning factors held constant, some individuals are more likely to become criminals than others. It considers the genetio inheritance of criminal behavior by means of data on the anatomical correlates of crime, sex differences, chromosomal anomalies, family, adoption, and twin studies.
The main purpose of research in this area is to separate out fully the influences of biological inheritance from those of the post-natal environment. As will be seen, all methods fall short of this target, essentially because the requisite degree of experimental control is rarely, if ever, obtainable. But something remains, sufficient to keep alive the possibility that biological factors play a more than trivial role in the criminal behavior of at least some offenders.
Anatomical correlates
The quotation from Julius Caesar which heads this chapter embodies a very old belief, which antedates Shakespeare by at least 3,500 years. It is found in Egyptian writings, in Homer's epics, in the Hippocratic and Galenic doctrines of medicine, and in the Bible. A law of medieval England stated: “If two persons fell under suspicion of crime, the uglier or more deformed was to be regarded as more probably guilty” (Ellis 1914, cited by Wilson and Herrnstein 1985, p. 71).
Contents
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp vii-x
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12 - Crime prevention
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 410-424
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Summary
It should be understood at the outset that the principal object to be attained is the Prevention of Crime.
… The security of person and property, the preservation of the public tranquillity and all the other objects of a police establishment will thus be better effected, than by detection and punishment of the offender after he has succeeded in committing the crime.
From General Instruction Book by C. Rowan, First Metropolitan Police Commissioner, 1829Following Commisioner Rowan, the final chapter of this section of the book surveys attempts to prevent offending, but moves beyond the limited context of police action to various forms of social management. These range from the role of bystanders, residents and citizens in general, to target hardening and the potential role of the media.
The police
Very broadly, two changes in police action have been urged. The first, which was considered in Chapter 3, involves enhanced police activity in high crime areas or in the targeting of well known offenders. It has had mixed results and is costly. The second relates to the way the police handle juveniles suspected of minor offenses, or apprehended during their commission, and implies a lighter touch than is used at present.
Police – juvenile encounters
The previous chapter mentioned programs for training juveniles in managing their side of the police–juvenile encounter. It is probably more practicable to train the police to respond to juveniles so as to divert them, whenever possible, from the track which culminates in an institutional sentence.
9 - The cognitive-behavioral approach
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 262-328
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Summary
The depradator who has escaped punishment due to his offense is constantly present; an encouraging example of success to all his class.
(Chadwick, 1829)Introduction
The previous chapter covered a range of social and economic factors and sociological theories concerned with the period after childhood and potentially relevant to the explanation of criminal behavior. Much of this material emphasized two key explanatory factors: (a) the social setting outside the home, in which adolescents and adults spend large parts of their waking lives; and (b) the performance of criminal behavior is largely rational. This chapter will make considerable use of these two factors in applying to the task of explaining crime some of the central areas of experimental psychology: learning, and cognitive and social psychology. In doing so, it draws on theory and research set out in Feldman (1977) as well a good deal of work published since then, as this general approach, termed the social learning theory (SLT) of crime, gathers momentum.
In setting out this theory, the author wishes to acknowledge his intellectual debt to Albert Bandura. During the past three decades, Bandura has produced a series of major theoretical analyses of human behavior which are based on the methods and findings of experimental psychology. Over the years, he has broadened his earlier emphasis on learning to give greater weight to the importance of social and cognitive factors. The term social learning theory is his, and I have built on his application of the theory to aggression (Bandura, 1973) to deal with crimes against the person, followed by an extension to crimes against property.
PART IV - SUMMARY
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 425-426
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Author index
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 509-520
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PART II - EXPLANATION
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 137-138
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Preface
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp xi-xiv
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Summary
There can be no question that sociology has been “the major parent discipline of criminology for perhaps fifty years” (Hirschi and Rudisill, 1976, p. 15) and remains so today. Yet … “The allocation of the field of criminology to the more general area of sociology has been as much a matter of professional turf-taking as it has been a rational division of intellectual labor … If a boy is humiliated by his teacher, that is “social class” and admissible in criminological theory, but if he is humiliated by his father, that is child psychology and inadmissible (Bordua, 1962, p. 247). We detract nothing from the sociological pioneers of modern criminology in pointing out that some of what they did is more properly construed as psychology. (Monahan and Splane 1980, p. 18).
Criminology became a coherent body of thought in the eighteenth century when enlightened men on both sides of the Atlantic began rational analyses of the harsh and oppressive systems of justice then in being, including the common use of the death penalty for trivial offences. The nature of criminal law, the causes of crime and the treatment of criminals were all examined. A key figure in this movement was Cesara Beccaria (1738–1794) a young Italian aristocrat. His brief essay On Crimes and Punishments evoked immediate acclaim and controversy. The system, he asserted was savage, stupid and corrupt. It should and could be rationalized. Punishment should be prompt, public and the least possible amount proportionate to the crime. Beccaria's ideas influenced first the English and then the American legal systems.
References
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 450-508
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3 - The police
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 80-104
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Summary
… The protection of life and property, the preservation of public tranquility and the absence of crime will alone prove whether the objects for which the police were appointed have been attained. … [These] instructions … are not to be understood as containing rules of conduct applicable to every variety of circumstance that may occur in the performance of their duty; something must necessarily be left to the intelligence and discretion of individuals. … [Be] civil and attentive to all persons of every rank and class.
(From the instructions given to the London Metropolitan Police, the World's first fully professional force, by their first Commissioner, C. Rowan, 1829.)This chapter deals in the main with the topics which were at the heart of the tasks set out by Commissioner Rowan: functions; effectiveness; discretion; behavior toward the public. It also includes two topics which Rowan did not mention; the police as people, including training, stress, and misbehavior, and the place of interrogation and confessions in police work.
History
Three major police strategies, watching, walling and walking, all concerning with crime prevention, have persisted from pre-industrial times to the present day (Sherman 1983). Watching involves the surveillance of potential targets, often by volunteers; its current incarnation is Neighborhood Watch (see below). Walling, now termed “target hardening,” means making the target more difficult to get at, by strengthening defences of all kinds. It is discussed in detail in Chapter 12. Walking, which today may mean patrolling in a police car, uses by far the most public finance and an increasing share of private resources, and is the most intrusive on civil liberties.
1 - Offences
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 3-41
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Summary
No national characteristics, no political regime, no system of law, police, justice, treatment or even terror, has rendered a country exempt from crime … scarcely any can claim to have checked its accelerating momentum
(Radzinowicz and King 1977, p. 15).This chapter, the first of four on the criminal justice system, falls into two sections: the first gives a qualitative description of the major groups of crime, from the Index offenses to political crimes, concluding with a brief historical overview; the second is quantitative, setting out the methods used to measure the total volume of crime and the results obtained – which must be treated with caution. The major emphasis throughout is on the USA, but some relevant international comparisons are made. A brief final section introduces the very difficult question of the costs of crime.
Definitions
Crime
There is no single definition of crime acceptable to all. In effect, a crime is anything forbidden or punishable by the criminal justice system. “A crime is an act that is capable of being followed by criminal proceedings, having one of the types of outcome (punishment, etc.) known to follow these proceedings” (Williams 1961, p. 21). This is circular, but it is clear-cut and is the essential starting point, whether we want to make comparisons between groups or to ask if the current criminal law should be expanded or contracted.
PART I - DESCRIPTION
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 1-2
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7 - Childhood development
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 184-217
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Summary
Train up a child in the way he should go and when he is old he will not depart from it.
Proverbs, xxii, 6Introduction
This is the first of three chapters which examine the importance of social influences and experiences for the explanation of criminal behavior. It focuses on childhood and adolescence, and proceeds from an account of research on moral development, through parental child-training and the importance of family experiences for early and subsequent offending, before moving outside the family to schools, peer groups and the impact of the media, particularly television, on children and adolescents. The overall emphasis in research on childhood and crime has been on failures to acquire socially acceptable behaviors and on the reasons for failure, which are seen to lie in dysfunctional families, specifically in inadequate parenting, both in itself and in interaction with influences outside the home, and with individual differences between children.
Moral development
There are two major descriptive systems of moral development, those of Piaget, and of Kohlberg. The former is more of historical importance; the latter provides the major focus for current research on moral development. Both are rather sparse on the detail of the socialization process, emphasizing instead that, providing the right broad conditions are available, moral development will occur almost inevitably. Also, both systems explicitly assume the unfolding of a sequence of changes which are roughly correlated with age as the individual matures, changes which are largely independent of specific learning experiences but arise from the inherent structure of human cognitive functioning.
6 - Individual differences
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 154-183
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Summary
Higgins:“… Doolittle: either you're a honest man or a rogue“ Doolittle: ”A little bit of both, Henry, like the rest of us: a little bit of both”
Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion, Act 5 (1912)This chapter focuses on individual differences as explanations for crime. It deals with intelligence, personality, and mental disorder, all of long-standing interest, both as “core” areas of applied psychology, and as sources of hypotheses concerning criminal behavior.
Intelligence
Introduction
The first scientist to construct an objective test of human intelligence was Francis Galton (a cousin of Charles Darwin). However, his tests, developed between 1860 and 1880, and largely to do with sensory functioning, failed to gain acceptance. Instead, the first successful and widely adopted test was devised by a Frenchman, Alfred Binet, whose work began in the 1890's and emphasized verbal skills such as reasoning. The Binet test crossed the Atlantic and, by the end of World War I, intelligence testing was in widespread use in the USA. The main attraction of intelligence tests is that, whatever “intelligence” is, a test such as the Wechsler–Bellevue is both highly reliable and a reasonably valid predictor of educational performance. There is evidence of a strong contribution of genetic inheritance to intelligence as measured by formal tests (Shields 1973), An association between criminal behavior and intelligence test scores would thus give some support to biological views of crime causation.
11 - The treatment of offenders
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 380-409
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Summary
“I've been in the soup pretty often … Someone always turns up and says, ‘I can't see a … man down and out. Let me put you back on your feet again’. I should think”, said Grimes, I've been put back on my feet more often than any living man.”
Evelyn Waugh, Decline and Fall, p. 30, 1928Introduction
In both North America and Britain, official policy toward rehabilitating (or “treating”) offenders, particularly those under 18, rather than punishing or merely containing them, has swung back and forth in the past 25 years. The custodial or punitive approach, which dominated until the middle 60's, was succeeded by a more treatment-oriented model, and after about a decade or so, by a return to the original emphasis, under the impact of rising crime figures and a sense that the therapeutic approach had largely failed. At the same time there has been a continued move towards deinstitutionalization, particularly for juveniles, and an attempt to treat offenders in the community, rather than in settings remote from the real world. The combined effect of these trends has been that the major treatment projects belong to the 60's and 70's rather than the 80's, together with a continuing shift from large scale programs in institutions to less ambitious efforts in community settings.
4 - The courts
- Philip Feldman, University of Leeds
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- The Psychology of Crime
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- 12 October 2009
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- 25 June 1993, pp 105-136
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Summary
… In 1752, James Stewart, Aucharn, was taken before the High court of Justiciary at Inverary, charged with being an accomplice in murder. The victim was Colin Campbell of Glenure.
The jury included Colin Campbell of Carwhin, Duncan Campbell of South Hall, James Campbell of Inveray, James Campbell of Rasheilly, James Campbell of Rudale, Colin Campbell of Skipness, Duncan Campbell of Glendaruel, Colin Campbell of Ederline, Neil Campbell of Duntroon, Archibald Campbell of Dale, Neil Campbell of Dunstafnage.
The jurors were picked from the list by the Bench, Archibald Campbell, Duke of Argyll, in his capacity as Lord Justice General, presided. James Stewart was hanged.
In his Collection of Celebrated Criminal Trials (1780), Hugo Arnot, advocate, allowed himself the comment:
This trial … points out the propriety of … alterations in the criminal law of Scotland: first that the prisoner should … have the power of challenging a certain number of jurors without cause assigned.
The right of peremptory challenge was brought in by Act of 1825. Yours faithfully,
Angus Stewart (Letter to The Times, June 19, 1984)This chapter divides court procedures into two broad areas: the trial and the sentence, in both cases focusing on descriptive and research material which is either of psychological interest in itself or continues from the two previous chapters the general question of bias in the criminal justice system against particular groups. The chapter concludes with the special case of the insanity defense.