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Section 3 - Emotion
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 21 September 2009
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- 28 October 2002, pp 117-118
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Summary
Going against the Cartesian tradition, Darwin considered emotions as behavioral adaptations, “useful habits” inherited during phylogeny. Many authors think of olfaction in much the same way: Like emotion, olfactory perception challenges rational explanations of the world, and language itself. In the nineteenth century, efforts were made to find links between such perceptions and knowledge, which in turn implied a questioning of established knowledge. As psychologists, Hermans and Baeyens (Chapter 8) are specialists in a form of learning: evaluative conditioning, which supposes no awareness of the contingency between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and is resistant to extinction. They have designed “ecologically valid” experiments, such as a bathroom study and a massage study, showing how emotional valuations of odors can be acquired and also changed during adult life without awareness. Such experiments, if they confirm that olfaction is an emotional sense, may also indicate that emotional processing of odors does not differ from emotional processing in other modalities. This is in contrast with memory processing, as will be discussed in Section 4.
In Chapter 9, Rouby and Bensafi question the concept of a hedonic dimension as a continuous variation between pleasantness and unpleasantness. They gather convergent cues from different disciplines indicating that hedonic judgment can distinguish two main types of odors: those that may have meanings and possibly attributes, and those that primarily have effects on the perceiver (see Section 2). Moreover, they propose the hypothesis that faster and more automatic neural networks subserve the processing of unpleasant odors.
Contents
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 28 October 2002, pp v-viii
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Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Benoist Schaal, Danièle Dubois, Rémi Gervais, A. Holley
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- Published online:
- 21 September 2009
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- 28 October 2002
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The human organs of perception are constantly bombarded with chemicals from the environment. Our bodies have in turn developed complex processing systems, which manifest themselves in our emotions, memory, and language. Yet the available data on the high order cognitive implications of taste and smell are scattered among journals in many fields, with no single source synthesizing the large body of knowledge, much of which has appeared in the last decade. This book presents the first multidisciplinary synthesis of the literature in olfactory and gustatory cognition. Leading experts have written chapters on many facets of taste and smell, including odor memory, cortical representations, psychophysics and functional imaging studies, genetic variation in taste, and the hedonistic dimensions of odors. The approach is integrative, combining perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics, and is appropriate for students and researchers in all of these areas who seek an authoritative reference on olfaction, taste, and cognition.
Section 6 - Individual Variations
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 28 October 2002, pp 389-390
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Summary
The final four chapters of this volume probe the theme of inter-individual variations in perceptual and cognitive performances in the chemical senses, a topic often encountered briefly in earlier chapters. Several chapters have described how group performances depend on previous exposure to odorants (e.g., Chapters 3, 8-10, and 21) and to tastants (Chapters 22 and 23). All those chapters have outlined emotional and memory processes evoked by odors and tastes that are at the core of an individual's functioning.
The chapters in this section more specifically address issues of chemosensory variability linked with individual constitution and with the interactions between individuals and given environments. Katharine Fast and colleagues (Chapter 24) offer a survey of the relationship between taste ability and an individual's genetic makeup. They highlight the phenomenon of taste blindness to bitter tastants as a window to individual variability in taste function. From that starting point they examine how it is possible to develop standard tools for measurements of taste intensity and hedonicity despite the considerable variability of individuals, ranging from nontaster to supertaster status. They examine the links between individual psychophysical data and the anatomical variations of the tongue, indicating that supertasters have higher fungiform papilla counts and rate stimuli as more intense. Similar structure-function correlates can explain sex differences.
In Chapter 25, Robyn Hudson and Hans Distel develop the argument that we will not be able to properly account for olfactory function without paying closer attention to the role of the conditions that have molded it in the individual-specific environment.
Section 4 - Memory
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 28 October 2002, pp 209-210
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Concerning memory processes in olfaction, most of the authors herein note that the evidence is sparse, mainly because the standard procedures used in the fields of vision and hearing are difficult to transfer to olfaction. Early research in olfaction, mimicking studies of the processing of visual information, was oriented toward episodic and semantic functions. However, recently there has been increasing interest in olfaction specificity, therefore shifting the focus to implicit forms of odor memory and to priming effects.
Chapter 13, by Sylvie Issanchou and colleagues, explains how the study of odor memory specificity in everyday life led them to contrast (1) incidental (nonintentional) learning and implicit recollection and (2) consciously learned and consciously recollected memories of odors in laboratory studies. They examine the ecological validity of traditional laboratory experiments and of incidental-learning paradigms in the study of olfaction by trying to get at the experimental conditions that can best predict memory performances in everyday life. They prefer priming and same/different judgments to identification tasks. However, Issanchou and associates, like Maria Larsson (Chapter 14) and Mats Olsson and his colleagues (Chapter 15), note that in spite of their efforts, it has been unexpectedly difficult to show priming effects in olfaction, as compared with priming in other modalities, the challenge being to figure out whether priming effects depend on perceptual processes or on conceptual (naming) processes.
Acknowledgments
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 28 October 2002, pp xvii-xviii
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Section 5 - Neural Bases
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- 28 October 2002, pp 291-292
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As discussed in Sections 3 and 4, olfactory and gustatory cognitions have close links to emotion and memory, from both the psychological and physiological points of view. The chapters in this section will complement the preceding studies and focus on the neural bases supporting the neural code and chemical-sense cognition, while most often taking into account these emotional and memory dimensions. In Chapter 18, Gilles Sicard reviews recent findings on neuroreceptor identification and the patterns that have emerged in the neural representation of odors at the level of neuroreceptors and the olfactory bulb, emphasizing a potentially important role for neural assemblies in odor detection and recognition.
The chapters in this section deal with phenomena observed over different time scales and under different experimental conditions, varying from one study to the next, and the concepts of neural dynamics are not always easy to follow. Several sets of data presented in the following chapters will illustrate this point. For instance, in Chapter 19, Bettina Pause examines the effects of cognitive dimensions such as attention, habituation, and short-term memory on the characteristics of olfactory-related evoked potentials recorded from the scalp in humans. She reports on pronounced modulations of some evoked-potential components occurring within the first second after stimulus onset. In Chapter 20, Robert Zatorre reviews the findings on the contributions of functional imaging studies to our understanding of the processing of olfactory affective information.
Frontmatter
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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Preface
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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This book arises from an acknowledgment: the lack, as far as we know, of a book dedicated to the cognition of chemical senses.
Although recent discoveries in the field of molecular biology raise the hope of a future understanding of the transduction and peripheral coding of odors and tastes, it seems to us that they imply a risk: to make us forget that in the other extreme of knowledge, that of maximal complexity, the evolution of cognitive sciences allows an epistemologically fruitful reformulation of information-processing problems.
Unlike the other senses, olfaction and taste do not have a learned discourse dealing with elementary aspects, that is, sensory processing, as well as the most abstract aspects, that is, symbolic processing. The purpose of cognitive science is to orient these processings into a continuity, and particularly to try to find out to what extent higher-order processes interact with the sensory level in order to produce sufficiently reliable representations of the world. We are still quite unaware of the nature of gustatory and olfactory representations, as compared with what we know about vision and audition, for example.
Faced with this relative ignorance, our prejudice was the following: If odors and tastes are ill-identified cognitive objects, then none of the available potential resources should be neglected: Expert and naive people, as well as “savage” and “civilized” ones, conscious knowledge and emotions, biology and social sciences – all of those can contribute first to an assessment of our knowledge, and then to confrontation of its inadequacies.
Section 2 - Knowledge and Languages
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- 28 October 2002, pp 45-46
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The chapters in this section will clearly illustrate the multidisciplinary approach of this volume, interweaving issues from different domains – chemistry, anthropology, psychology, and linguistics – to examine the complex relationships between language for odors and knowledge of odors.
In Chapter 4, from a psycholinguistic point of view, Danièle Dubois and Catherine Rouby's analysis of verbal answers in laboratory identification tasks for odors shows that scoring is not solely a technical issue, but also raises numerous theoretical questions about cognitive representations and the naming of odors. They first demonstrate that the “veridical label” is the name of the odorant source rather than the name of an olfactory property. Therefore, because subjects lack adequate labels for the olfactory properties of objects, they have to resort to the use of a large diversity of linguistic devices to account for their olfactory perceptions, and those must be interpreted by researchers as cues to subjects' knowledge of odors.
In Chapter 5, David Howes examines a large body of data borrowed from the history of Western culture and from distant cultures. Referring to Classen's “archeology of sense words” for intellect in the English language, he shows that the sense of smell has been differently valued and interpreted in various cultures and that, for example, intelligence was more “tactile” before the Enlightenment than it is now.
Contributors
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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Section 1 - A Specific Type of Cognition
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- By Catherine Rouby, Associate professor of neuroscience, Université Claude Bernard, Benoist Schaal, Research director CNRS, Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt, Danièle Dubois, Research director CNRS, Institut National de la Langue Française, Rémi Gervais, Research director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon, A. Holley, Professor of neuroscience Université Claude Bernard; Director Centre Européen des Sciences du GoÛt
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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Olfactory experience is difficult to define: From ineffable to unmentionable, it seems to remain in the limbo of cognition. More than any artist's work, the competence of the perfumer is a challenge for explication. The few artists who are able to communicate in writing about their creative processes are mainly plasticians (painters and sculptors), musicians, and, of course, writers. As regards chemical senses, the writings are extremely rare, and the very status of “artist” is not easily conferred. As an example, Edmond Roudnitska faced a difficult task in his effort to have olfaction accepted into the realm of aesthetics.
In Chapter 1, Annick Le Guérer proposes an explanation for that misappreciation that has to do with the history of Western philosophy: Our philosophical heritage denies any nobility to olfaction and taste, as compared with the other senses, and depreciates them almost systematically. Psychoanalysis has cited that fact as evidence that civilization can be built only if there is repression of smell. However, as Le Guérer points out, the history of psychoanalysis itself is marked by fantastic representations of the nose and its functions within the relationship linking Freud and Fliess – their unconscious montre son nez in the learned conception of smell.
Moving away from the neurophysiology of smell, André Holley, in Chapter 2, looks into the perfumer's knowledge, which remains largely secret and intuitive. What is the difference between expert and novice, artist and amateur in the cognitive treatment of odors?
21 - Experience-induced Changes Reveal Functional Dissociation within Olfactory Pathways
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- By Nadine Ravel, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, CNRS/Université Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, 69675, Bron, France, Anne-Marie Mouly, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, CNRS/Université Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, 69675, Bron, France, Pascal Chabaud, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, CNRS/Université Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, 69675, Bron, France, Rémi Gervais, Research Director CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, Lyon
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- 28 October 2002, pp 335-349
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Learning more about the neural basis of olfactory cognition should greatly improve our understanding of how different brain structures deal with information. Progress can be facilitated by simultaneous advances with animal models and human studies, for in the olfactory system, conservatism across mammalian species in the organization of olfactory pathways allows integration of data obtained in animals and humans. In each species, output neurons from the olfactory bulb (OB) monosynaptically reach the piriform cortex (PC), the peri-amygdaloid cortex, and the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC). The LEC provides massive input to the hippocampus, and the PC sends information to the orbitofrontal neocortical area, both directly and after a relay in the dorsomedial thalamic nuclei (Haberly, 1998). As in other sensory systems, two strategies have been developed thus far in order to identify hierarchical organization: collecting information from one structure at a time, and looking at the system as a network of interconnected structures. The first strategy is typical for most animal studies and is implemented through single-cell recordings in anesthetized animals (Mori, Nagao, and Yoshiara, 1999) and active animals (Schoenbaum, Chiba, and Gallagher, 1999; Weibe and Staubli, 1999; Wood, Dudchenko, and Eichenbaum, 1999) or through surface EEG recordings in awake restrained animals (Freeman and Skarda, 1985). When using anesthetized animals, most studies have focused on the OB, and fewer on the PC. When using active rats, such studies have investigated hippocampal, amygdalar, and orbitofrontal electrophysiological characteristics.
Index
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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OLFACTION, TASTE, AND COGNITION
- Edited by Catherine Rouby, Université Lyon I, Benoist Schaal, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Danièle Dubois, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, Rémi Gervais, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, A. Holley, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
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- Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition
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- 21 September 2009
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- 28 October 2002, pp xxi-xxii
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