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6 - Critic
- from Part III - Broken Windows Policing
- Edited by David Weisburd, George Mason University, Virginia, Anthony A. Braga, Northeastern University, Boston
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- Police Innovation
- Published online:
- 09 August 2019
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- 29 August 2019, pp 142-162
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Summary
A 2002 New Yorker cartoon depicts two grizzled prisoners whiling away the day on their bunks in their cell. The one on the bottom bunk, presumably in reply to a question from the inmate in the top bunk, explains, “There might have been some carelessness on my part, but it was mostly just good police work.” The inmate on the top bunk seems startled by the admission.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Contributors
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- By Joanne R. Adler, David A. Alexander, Laurence Alison, Catherine C. Ayoub, Peter Banister, Anthony R. Beech, Amanda Biggs, Julian Boon, Adrian Bowers, Neil Brewer, Eric Broekaert, Paula Brough, Jennifer M. Brown, Kevin Browne, Elizabeth A. Campbell, David Canter, Michael Carlin, Shihning Chou, Martin A. Conway, Claire Cooke, David Cooke, Ilse Derluyn, Robert J. Edelmann, Vincent Egan, Tom Ellis, Marie Eyre, David P. Farrington, Seena Fazel, Daniel B. Fishman, Victoria Follette, Katarina Fritzon, Elizabeth Gilchrist, Nathan D. Gillard, Renée Gobeil, Agnieszka Golec de Zavala, Jane Goodman-Delahunty, Lynsey Gozna, Don Grubin, Gisli H. Gudjonsson, Helinä Häkkänen-Nyholm, Guy Hall, Nathan Hall, Roisin Hall, Sean Hammond, Leigh Harkins, Grant T. Harris, Camilla Herbert, Robert D. Hoge, Todd E. Hogue, Clive R. Hollin, Lorraine Hope, Miranda A. H. Horvath, Kevin Howells, Carol A. Ireland, Jane L. Ireland, Mark Kebbell, Michael King, Bruce D. Kirkcaldy, Heidi La Bash, Cara Laney, William R. Lindsay, Elizabeth F. Loftus, L. E. Marshall, W. L. Marshall, James McGuire, Neil McKeganey, T. M. McMillan, Mary McMurran, Joav Merrick, Becky Milne, Joanne M. Nadkarni, Claire Nee, M. D. O’Brien, William O’Donohue, Darragh O’Neill, Jane Palmer, Adria Pearson, Derek Perkins, Devon L. L. Polaschek, Louise E. Porter, Charlotte C. Powell, Graham E. Powell, Martine Powell, Christine Puckering, Ethel Quayle, Vernon L. Quinsey, Marnie E. Rice, Randall Richardson-Vejlgaard, Richard Rogers, Louis B Schlesinger, Carolyn Semmler, G. A. Serran, Ralph C. Serin, John L. Taylor, Max Taylor, Brian Thomas-Peter, Paul A. Tiffin, Graham Towl, Rosie Travers, Arlene Vetere, Graham Wagstaff, Helen Wakeling, Fiona Warren, Brandon C. Welsh, David Wexler, Margaret Wilson, Dan Yarmey, Susan Young
- Edited by Jennifer M. Brown, London School of Economics and Political Science, Elizabeth A. Campbell, University of Glasgow
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- The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology
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- 06 July 2010
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- 29 April 2010, pp xix-xxiii
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5 - Critic Incivilities reduction policing, zero tolerance, and the retreat from coproduction: weak foundations and strong pressures
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- By Ralph B. Taylor, Teaches and Researches in the Department of Criminal Justice Temple University
- Edited by David Weisburd, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Anthony A. Braga, Harvard University, Massachusetts
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- Police Innovation
- Published online:
- 22 September 2009
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- 04 May 2006, pp 98-114
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Summary
A 2002 New Yorker cartoon depicts two grizzled prisoners whiling away the day on their bunks. The one on the bottom bunk, presumably in reply to a question from the inmate in the top bunk, explains, “There might have been some carelessness on my part, but it was mostly just good police work.” The inmate on the top bunk seems startled by the admission.
The question to consider here is whether broken windows or incivility reduction policing is good police work. Broken windows policing is conceptually grounded on the incivilities thesis. The incivilities thesis, although it comes in several different guises, suggests that: physical deterioration and disorderly social conduct each contribute independently to fear, neighborhood decline, and crime; by implication, incivility reducing initiatives will contribute to neighborhood stability and safety, and lower fear. To the extent that this logic model is inaccurate, inadequate, or potentially misleading, incivilities reduction as a set of policing strategies may fail to deliver. This chapter will summarize the conceptual limitations of that thesis, and the empirical limitations of the supporting work. It will then broaden the discussion context in two ways: first, to provide an alternate historical outline of where broken windows policing came from and, second, to outline the elements of a police–citizen coproduced process of public safety. Given that context, it sketches the specific challenges facing successful coproduction over time in an urban residential context.
11 - Disorder
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp 249-274
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Summary
The first criminal is the landlord
– Lena Boone, long-time president of the Upton Improvement Association (Baltimore)This chapter considers disorder, in particular, the issues of crime, fear of crime, and vandalism. It addresses the question: How is territorial functioning relevant to these outcomes? Where territorial functioning is “stronger,” are crime, fear of crime, and vandalism less evident? If so, why?
Organization of the chapter
The chapter opens with an outline of the three related social problems to be addressed. Following this introduction a general model linking territorial functioning to these outcomes is presented. The model constitutes an application and extension of the general model we have been relying on throughout the volume. Next, the theoretical processes linking territorial functioning to crime, fear of crime, and vandalism are outlined. This preliminary orientation completed, we examine the empirical work on each of the “predictors” of disorder used in our model: physical and social factors, context, territorial functioning, and offender perceptions. The final sections of the chapter consider the practical implications of research to date, future research needs, and conclusions.
The nature of the problems
Crime
Crime has insinuated itself into the lives of millions of Americans. The Bureau of Justice Statistics estimates that about one quarter of all households in America are “touched” by crime in a year. Luckily, the number of households experiencing serious or violent crime is much smaller.
Nonetheless, it is clear that in the last 25 years this country has witnessed a sizable increase in crime rates (Figure 11.1).
Acknowledgments
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp xxv-xxviii
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7 - Interior residential settings
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp 136-165
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Summary
But, you may say, we asked you to speak about women and fiction. … All I could do was to offer you an opinion upon one minor point – a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction
– Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own (1929)How does territorial functioning operate in settings where people live? This is the main question addressed in this chapter. A range of interior residential settings will be examined, spanning intact households, dorm settings, institutional residential settings, and experimental groups in isolation.
These various sites share three characteristics. (1) For a period of time, small groups, ranging in size from two to more than a dozen, live in these settings; they take up residence there and share space. It is there that the “strongest” territories exist. These spaces represent the core of the group's spatial activity system. (2) Interior residential settings are strongly multifunctional. (3) And, in these settings, co-occupants have frequent contact over a period of time. The objective diversities of the settings examined here are outweighed by the similarities in subjective significance and individual and group functioning.
Investigating territorial functioning in interior residential settings is frustrating for two reasons. First, the settings in question are highly private, causing operational as well as ethical problems for researchers (see the following box). Consequently, there is a paucity of solid data for some of the settings considered. Second, territorial functioning is often latent one is not aware of it unless changes impinge (see Figure 7.1). This submerged nature of territorial functioning makes its examination all the more difficult.
14 - Future directions for research and application
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp 322-340
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Summary
This chapter addresses two matters: future conceptual issues deserving attention, and areas of potential application. One area of investigation is singled out with regard to the former: time. A detailed look at one area may be more fruitful than providing a laundry list of areas deserving investigation. Moving over to practical concerns, three potential areas of research application are highlighted. First, the role of explicit territorial arrangements in interior residential settings as a way of reducing or managing household stress is explored. To develop such an intervention fully, territorial concepts would need to be merged with concepts from family therapy. Second, the possibility of disorder reduction through a privatizing of streetblocks is considered. There have already been some efforts in this direction in St. Louis, but a more complete implementation and evaluation of such an arrangement is needed. And third, a resource conservation program involving feedback, reward, and a territorializing strategy is developed, using a particular hypothetical context. Complete delineation of such a program necessitates merging a territorializing strategy with an applied behavior analysis approach.
Time: a theoretical loose end
Although some theoretical attention has been given to the connection between time and territorial functioning,1 and it has appeared in the empir-ical literature in different places, it is by and large a neglected topic. In what ways might it tie in to territorial attitudes and behaviors? The conceptual framework we have used throughout (as introduced in Chapter 5) can be expanded to incorporate temporal issues.
PART IV - APPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp 247-248
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PART V REVIEW AND PROSPECTS
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp 309-310
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Preface
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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- 05 February 2010
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- 26 August 1988, pp xxiii-xxiv
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Summary
The major themes of this volume are captured in the subtitle: the evolutionary origins of protohuman and later human territorial functioning. For such a system to have survived, albeit significantly altered, it must have “benefits” for humans. I suggest that it does; territorial functioning has psychological, social psychological, and ecological outcomes that contribute to orderly person–place relationships and to the well-being of individuals and small groups. My treatment of human territorial functioning is grounded in empirical social science research. Consequently, I circumscribe the concept to microscale, usually delimited locations ranging in size from furnishings (e.g., a chair) up to the scale of a streetblock. I maintain, based on theory and lack of evidence, that the concept does not work well when applied to macroscale settings, such as neighborhoods or nations.
The reader may think this treatment of the concept too confining or specialized. Nonetheless, the confusion surrounding the concept of human territoriality will be reduced only if we look carefully at how empirical findings illuminate the concept. And, the findings simply do not extend to larger-scale settings than the ones discussed here. I admit that my view is at variance with the perspective of other writers on this topic.
In addition, whereas others, from Klineberg, who discussed an instinct or drive for possessiveness, to Malmberg, who more recently placed the territorial instinct in the limbic system, have viewed teritorial functioning as instinct-based or “hard-wired,” I attempt to show that it is, rather, a set of learned, goal-oriented processes.
PART II - A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF HUMAN TERRITORIAL FUNCTIONING
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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9 - Regular use settings
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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Summary
We used to go to a bar off Grant Street. Gays used to hang out there. Over several months my wife started getting more approaches, and I fewer, when we visited there. It changed over to a lesbian bar.
– former San FranciscanWhen your desk, shelves, and wall space are covered with mementoes, photographs, trophies, humorous mottoes, and other decorative effects, you are probably not beautifying the office; rather, you may be giving it a jumbled, untidy look. … The proper atmosphere for a business office is one of neatness and efficiency, not hominess.
– Business Etiquette HandbookProceeding down the centrality continuum brings us to regular use settings. These are places frequented on a more or less regular basis by an individual or group, where the individual or group plays some role in maintaining the setting, and/or encounters known others. Territorial functioning in those settings is the focus of this chapter. The settings included in this portion of the centrality continuum are diverse, and more geographically dispersed than the interior residential settings and outdoor spaces near home examined in the previous two chapters. Nonetheless, commonalities across these locations in terms of territorial functioning are evident. It is the relative position of these settings on the centrality continuum that helps explain similarities in territorial functioning in the settings.
The nature of regular use settings is examined and the characteristics of territorial functioning in those locations are outlined. Following the same practice used in the preceding two chapters, evidence of personal, social, physical, and “cultural” predictors of territorial functioning in these settings is presented. The types of places covered include work settings of different types. Arenas in which athletic contests are held are, however, also included. Then, psychological, social psychological, and ecological consequences are noted.
3 - The origins of human territorial functioning
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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Summary
If some of our nearest evolutionary relatives, such as mountain gorillas, exhibit a home-range-based system of sociospatial behavior, then why did humans evolve a system of territorial functioning instead? Stated differently, what was the value of a system based on territorial functioning in our environment of evolutionary adaptedness, several million years ago on the savannas and in the forests of East Africa? This chapter sketches an answer to this question, drawing on recent anthropological theorizing. A territory-based spatial organization, coupled with a particular group/family structure, probably had significant adaptive value for primitive hominids.
The importance of territorial functioning in protohominid emergence
Anthropologists have long wondered what physical, cultural, and behavioral changes allowed the protohominids, emerging before Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, to flourish and compete successfully with pongids (gorillas, chimps, orangutans). Current evidence suggests that bipedality, the emergence of material culture involving toolmaking, and the expansion of the neocortex and the concomitant larger braincase, although applicable to later species, did not spur the emergence of early protohominids.
When protohominids emerged during the Miocene epoch (which began about 25 million years ago and ended roughly 7 million years ago), they lived not only in high savannas or grasslands but also in canopy forest and woodlands, and all these settings were characterized by marked seasonally. A selective advantage would have accrued to protohominids if they engaged in a pattern of behavior that allowed decreased infant mortality from environmental hazards in these varied settings.
8 - Territorial functioning in outdoor residential spaces close to the home
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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If one is to tell what is going on in a residential area, it can be much more useful to look at the decoration of the windows, the cleanliness of the sidewalks, and the neatness of the lawns, than at the style and scale of the houses.
– Don Appleyard, “Environment as a Social Symbol”“A lot of people say it's tacky… I don't know… One flamingo… maybe that's tacky. I've got thirty-four.”
– Don Featherstone, of Union Products, Inc., inventor of the pink flamingo lawn ornament. Interview on National Public Radio's “All Things Considered,” July 31, 1987In this chapter we move out of interior residential settings and into the spaces surrounding them: outdoor residential spaces close to the home. The locations to be considered include front steps, porches and front yards, driveways, backyards, alleys, sidewalks, and the street itself. These exterior locations not only encapsulate the interior residential spaces where person-place transactions are of highest centrality. They are also linked with interior settings in a number of important ways. Quality of life in the interior residential setting is shaped by events, people, and conditions in the adjoining outdoor spaces.
Transactions in outdoor residential spaces rank second highest on the centrality dimension for a simple reason: They are always there. In leaving the residence and returning home, occupants must traverse these spaces.
Frontmatter
- Ralph B. Taylor
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10 - Minimal territorial functioning
- Ralph B. Taylor
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Territorial functioning in settings where the person-place transactions are of low centrality is the focus of this chapter: how people create and maintain minimal territories in settings that are by definition public. In the round of our daily lives, we are constantly “laying claim” to spaces for short periods of time. (For some examples, see the first box in this chapter.)
Organization of the chapter
The nature of the low centrality person-place bond is reviewed. The components of territorial functioning in locations where centrality is low are examined. Although territorial functioning may in some instances shade into other person-place processes such as jurisdiction, group space, and personal space, it is nonetheless clear that territorial functioning operates in these public settings. Following our model, evidence of the physical, social, cultural, and personal determinants of territorial functioning, and the consequences of such functioning for individuals, groups, and settings, are considered.
Settings where person–place bonds are of low centrality
We spend considerable amounts of time in public places and spaces; these locations are open to all or almost all of the citizenry. The sheer number and variety of these places is staggering: buses, trains, planes, bus and train stations, airports, stores, restaurants, classrooms, banks, post offices, libraries, resorts, stadiums, theaters, bars, playgrounds, and beaches, just to name a few. Since these are “public” spaces, our “claim” to a particular “spot” in a location is not backed by any law or legal statute.
5 - A perspective on human territorial functioning
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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Summary
A six-year-old girl is sitting on the beach, near the waterline, digging a hole with a clamshell. She has been working diligently for about fifteen minutes. Her younger sister, four, saunters over and watches silently. Her foot, slowly and deliberately nearing the edge of the hole, pushes some sand back in. The older sister looks up, starts yelling and tries to hit the younger one with the clamshell in her hand.
In an off-campus apartment shared by four men, three of them are sitting in the living room drinking beer, talking about their absent roommate. They complain that he never cleans up the kitchen or helps in the picking up and cleaning of common areas like the living room and bathroom. As they are talking the fourth roommate, returning from studying at the library (on a Friday night), comes in. He nods to the three others and, without taking off his coat, retreats to his bedroom and closes the door. The other three look at each other, shake their heads and laugh quietly, then turn to a discussion of plans for the upcoming weekend.
In a lower-income neighborhood, residents on a block have organized for a massive cleanup and beautification campaign, sponsored by a local newspaper. They have gone down to the paper and gotten paint, of two colors, to represent their official block colors. Over the next several days they have removed six truckloads of trash from two vacant lots, put out planters all along the block, and painted the curbs.[…]
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Human Territorial Functioning
- An Empirical, Evolutionary Perspective on Individual and Small Group Territorial Cognitions, Behaviors, and Consequences
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- 26 August 1988
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'Territorial functioning' refers to an interlocked system of sentiments, cognitions, and behaviors that are highly place-specific, and socially and culturally determined and maintaining. In this book, Ralph Taylor explores the consequences of human territorial functioning for individuals, small groups, and the ecological systems in which they operate. His exploration is illuminated by his evolutionary perspective, and grounded in empirical studies by social scientists and in theoretical work on the evolution of social and spatial behaviors. He systematically reviews the related research and theory, and indicates the importance of territorial functioning to current social and environmental problems. Contrary to popular wisdom, he argues that territorial functioning is relevant only to limited locations, such as street blocks, and not to neighborhoods or nation states, and that it reduces conflicts and helps maintain settings and groups. His theoretically focused examination of all that has been discovered about human territorial functioning will interest a wide variety of environmental psychologists and designers, urban sociologists, social psychologists, planners, and ethologists, and their students.
1 - Introduction
- Ralph B. Taylor
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- Human Territorial Functioning
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Summary
The present volume examines human territorial functioning, a closely linked constellation of place-specific, socially determined and influential cognitions, behaviors, and sentiments. Territorial functioning encompasses a class of environment–behavior transactions concerned with issues of personal and group identity, cohesiveness, control, access, and ecological management. This functioning applies largely to small groups, and the individuals in those groups, and is limited largely to small-scale, delimited spaces. The present chapter outlines the purposes of this book, sketches its major recurrent themes, and presents in capsule form a lowlevel theory, or model, of human territorial functioning. The materials to be covered in the various sections are also introduced.
Focus
The concept of human territorial functioning addresses the question: How do people “manage” the locations they own, occupy, or use for varying periods of time? Approaching this question is difficult, for two reasons.
Some problems
First, everyone knows something about territoriality, based on personal experience. Children at camp vie for the top bunks, siblings get upset and scream when a sister or brother enters their room unannounced, and in some households no one is allowed in the kitchen when dad is baking a cake. Frequently, territorial issues are resolved in the legal arena (see accompanying box). Further, territoriality is ensconced in our everyday lexicon with references to “turf battles” or phrases such as “a man's home is his castle”. (But see Figure 1.1.) Movies may trade on everyday notions of how people are territorial, Sam Peckinpah's Straw Dogs of the early 1970's or the more recent The Warriors being cases in point.
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