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Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
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- 05 August 2015
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- By Michael H. Allen, Leora Amira, Victoria Arango, David W. Ayer, Helene Bach, Christopher R. Bailey, Ross J. Baldessarini, Kelsey Ball, Alan L. Berman, Marian E. Betz, Emily A. Biggs, R. Warwick Blood, Kathleen T. Brady, David A. Brent, Jeffrey A. Bridge, Gregory K. Brown, Anat Brunstein Klomek, A. Jacqueline Buchanan, Michelle J. Chandley, Tim Coffey, Jessica Coker, Yeates Conwell, Scott J. Crow, Collin L. Davidson, Yogesh Dwivedi, Stacey Espaillat, Jan Fawcett, Steven J. Garlow, Robert D. Gibbons, Catherine R. Glenn, Deborah Goebert, Erica Goldstein, Tina R. Goldstein, Madelyn S. Gould, Kelly L. Green, Alison M. Greene, Philip D. Harvey, Robert M. A. Hirschfeld, Donna Holland Barnes, Andres M. Kanner, Gary J. Kennedy, Stephen H. Koslow, Benoit Labonté, Alison M. Lake, William B. Lawson, Steve Leifman, Adam Lesser, Timothy W. Lineberry, Amanda L. McMillan, Herbert Y. Meltzer, Michael Craig Miller, Michael J. Miller, James A. Naifeh, Katharine J. Nelson, Charles B. Nemeroff, Alexander Neumeister, Matthew K. Nock, Jennifer H. Olson-Madden, Gregory A. Ordway, Michael W. Otto, Ghanshyam N. Pandey, Giampaolo Perna, Jane Pirkis, Kelly Posner, Anne Rohs, Pedro Ruiz, Molly Ryan, Alan F. Schatzberg, S. Charles Schulz, M. Katherine Shear, Morton M. Silverman, April R. Smith, Marcus Sokolowski, Barbara Stanley, Zachary N. Stowe, Sarah A. Struthers, Leonardo Tondo, Gustavo Turecki, Robert J. Ursano, Kimberly Van Orden, Anne C. Ward, Danuta Wasserman, Jerzy Wasserman, Melinda K. Westlund, Tracy K. Witte, Kseniya Yershova, Alexandra Zagoloff, Sidney Zisook
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- A Concise Guide to Understanding Suicide
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- 05 October 2014
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- 18 September 2014, pp vii-x
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- By Tom Abbott, Gareth L. Ackland, Hollman D. Aya, Berthold Bein, Karim Bendjelid, Matthieu Biais, Elizabeth J. Bridges, Maxime Cannesson, Cédric Carrié, Alice Carter, Maurizio Cecconi, Daniel Chappell, Jason H. Chua, Gary Colins, Diego Orbegozo Cortes, Lester A. H. Critchley, Daniel De Backer, Katia Donadello, Eric Edison, Byron D. Fergerson, Tong J. Gan, Michael T. Ganter, Leslie M. Garson, Christoph K. Hofer, Christoph Ilies, James M. Isbell, Matthias Jacob, Mazyar Javidroozi, Zeev N. Kain, Elisa Kam, Gautam Kumar, Yannick Le Manach, Sheldon Magder, Aman Mahajan, Gerard R. Manecke, Paul E. Marik, Joseph Meltzer, Debra R. Metter, Timothy E. Miller, Xavier Monnet, Michael Mythen, Rudolph Nguyen, Rupert Pearse, Michael R. Pinsky, Davinder Ramsingh, Steffen Rex, Andrew Rhodes, Joseph Rinehart, Mathieu Sèrié, Aryeh Shander, Nils Siegenthaler, Ann B. Singleton, Faraz Syed, Jean-Louis Teboul, Robert H. Thiele, Shermeen B. Vakharia, Trung Vu, Nathan H. Waldron, David Walker, William Wilson
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- Perioperative Hemodynamic Monitoring and Goal Directed Therapy
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- 05 September 2014
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- 04 September 2014, pp vii-x
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Coordinated Microanalyses of Seven Particles of Probable Interstellar Origin from the Stardust Mission.
- Andrew J. Westphal, Rhonda M. Stroud, Hans A. Bechtel, Frank E. Brenker, Anna L. Butterworth, George J. Flynn, David R. Frank, Zack Gainsforth, Jon K. Hillier, Frank Postberg, Alexandre S. Simionovici, Veerle J. Sterken, Carlton Allen, David Anderson, Asna Ansari, Saˇsa Bajt, Ron K. Bastien, Nabil Bassim, John Bridges, Donald E. Brownlee, Mark Burchell, Manfred Burghammer, Hitesh Changela, Peter Cloetens, Andrew M. Davis, Ryan Doll, Christine Floss, Eberhard Gru¨n, Philipp R. Heck, Peter Hoppe, Bruce Hudson, Joachim Huth, Anton Kearsley, Ashley J. King, Barry Lai, Jan Leitner, Laurence Lemelle, Ariel Leonard, Hugues Leroux, Robert Lettieri, William Marchant, Larry R. Nittler, Ryan Ogliore, Wei Jia Ong, Mark C. Price, Scott A. Sandford, Juan-Angel Sans Tresseras, Sylvia Schmitz, Tom Schoonjans, Kate Schreiber, Geert Silversmit, Vicente A. Solé, Ralf Srama, Frank Stadermann, Thomas Stephan, Julien Stodolna, Stephen Sutton, Mario Trieloff, Peter Tsou, Tolek Tyliszczak, Bart Vekemans, Laszlo Vincze, Joshua Von Korff, Naomi Wordsworth, Daniel Zevin, Michael E. Zolensky
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- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 20 / Issue S3 / August 2014
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- 27 August 2014, pp. 1692-1693
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- August 2014
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- By Thomas M. Achenbach, Marc H. Bornstein, W. Thomas Boyce, Robert H. Bradley, Kelly Bridges, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Brenda K. Bryant, Sandra L. Calvert, Scott Coltrane, E. Mark Cummings, Stacey B. Daughters, Cindy DeCoste, Marc de Rosnay, Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Hadas Eidelman, Ruth Feldman, Peter Fonagy, Walter S. Gilliam, Andrea L. Gold, Elena L. Grigorenko, Sara Harkness, Sybil L. Hart, Jessica S. Henry, Erika Hoff, Tom Hollenstein, Stephanie M. Jones, Julia Kim-Cohen, Pamela K. Klebanov, Brett Laursen, Mary J. Levitt, Alicia F. Lieberman, Shoon Lio, Jessica F. Magidson, Ann S. Masten, David L. Molfese, Peter J. Molfese, Lynne Murray, Jelena Obradović, Lauren M. Papp, Ross D. Parke, Yaacov Petscher, Aelesia Pisciella, Aliza W. Pressman, Sarah Rabbitt, Craig T. Ramey, Sharon Landesman Ramey, Jessica M. Richards, Robert W. Roeser, Thomas J. Schofield, Ronald Seifer, Anne Shaffer, Michelle Sleed, Laura Stout Sosinsky, Nancy E. Suchman, Charles M. Super, Louis Tuthill, Patricia Van Horn, Eric Vega, Sarah Ward, Monica Yudron
- Edited by Linda Mayes, Yale University, Connecticut, Michael Lewis
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- The Cambridge Handbook of Environment in Human Development
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- 05 October 2012
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- 27 August 2012, pp ix-xvi
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Surface Preparation of Uranium by Ion Milling
- Donald A. Carpenter, Robert L. Bridges
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- Microscopy Today / Volume 16 / Issue 3 / May 2008
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- 14 March 2018, pp. 28-31
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- May 2008
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Metallographic examinations of uranium, as carried out with both optical and orientation contrast microscopies (electron backscatter diffraction or EBSD), typically require a final preparation step that involves acid-etching or electropolishing. Uranium oxidizes relatively rapidly after mechanical polishing, making EBSD impossible without additional preparation steps. Conventional specimen preparation generates a mixture of acids and radioactive waste, so-called “mixed waste” as defined by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Mixed waste is more costly to dispose of than either separate component and there is a desire to eliminate mixed waste streams. One simple method to avoid the use of acids in optical metallography is to wait a few minutes for the sample to differentially oxidize to obtain the desired contrast. However, this method is disadvantageous when more than a few micrographs are needed because the sample continues to change with each micrograph.
Appendix: Court Documents and Case Materials Used in Case Studies
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 365-370
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6 - Bureaucratic Politics and Gender Inequality in a State Pay System: AFSCME v. State of Washington
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 171-202
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Summary
In 1985, a three-judge panel from the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals overruled a lower-court decision that the State of Washington had unlawfully discriminated in pay against employees working in predominantly female jobs. At the district court level, the case had been argued in part according to the logic of comparable worth. Prior to the appellate court's decision, the plaintiffs, the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), and their attorneys and supporters were optimistic that the district court's ruling would set the stage for a succession of cases that would establish the principle of equal pay for work of equal value under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. In its reversal of the lower court, the appellate court lowered the curtain on this impending legal drama before the end of the first act. A subsequent settlement of $100 million provided some relief for the affected state employees, but did nothing to revive the effort to expand legal theories of pay discrimination against women. This case, which in retrospect was a turning point for pay equity in the federal courts, is the basis for this chapter's investigation of pay inequality in a state pay system.
In many ways, AFSCME v. State of Washington provides a sharp contrast to the Christensen case that we analyzed in the preceding chapter. AFSCME reflects how much the social environment was different in Washington State in the 1980s than in midwestern Iowa in the 1970s.
3 - Toward an Organizational Theory of Gender Inequality in Pay
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 53-100
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Summary
The influence of organizations on men's and women's wages is surrounded by practical and theoretical concerns. From a policy standpoint, whether anything needs to be done to redress earnings differences that exist inside organizations depends in part on the size and durability of the gender “wage gap” in society at large. If women's earnings are about to converge on those of their male counterparts, there is little practical benefit from understanding the nuances of where those wage differences came from. Indeed, even if the wage gap is significant and persistent, if existing market-based or cultural theories adequately explain the phenomenon, there would be little point in developing a new organization-level theory.
In this chapter we argue that neither is true. Despite some significant shrinking of the gender wage gap, substantial wage disparities continue, with no guarantee of a steady trend to wage parity. A significant portion of gender-based wage inequality exists between predominantly male and predominantly female jobs. And there are indications that organizations are the locus of a considerable segment of gender inequality in pay. We are warranted, therefore, in proposing a new organizational theory of gender-based wage inequality.
This chapter critically synthesizes the existing social scientific literature on the dimensions of and explanations for the earnings differences between men and women. It then proposes an organizational approach. In the first section we consider the size of the pay gap in both the United States and in other countries and how it has changed over time.
Part II - The Case Studies
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 117-118
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References
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 371-384
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Contents
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp ix-x
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Part III - Conclusion: Legalizing Gender Inequality
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 307-308
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Frontmatter
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp i-viii
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8 - The Financial Institution as a Male, Profit-Making Club: Glass v. Coastal Bank
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 244-306
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Summary
Our last case involves Coastal Bank, a pseudonym for a major financial institution located in an international money center. As institutions built on financial analysis, one might expect banks (and their pay systems) to embody principles of economic rationality. Yet banking traditionally occupied a distinctive place in American commerce. Before deregulation in the 1980s, bankers were at the center of commerce but also somehow above it. They kept “bankers' hours”; the architecture of their buildings made their places of business the temples of capitalism; and reserve requirements and government regulation underscored the fact that banks made up the institutional framework for the economy and were not ordinary actors in the marketplace. As such, the internal management of banks before the most recent era might have reflected customs that could not be reduced to means-ends calculations.
In the mid-1970s, Coastal Bank's pay system reflected both tendencies. On the one hand, it clearly bore the imprint of bureaucratic administration. The bank retained compensation consultants to evaluate and revamp its pay structure. It adopted a new set of job evaluation techniques. It collected and analyzed pay data from the banking industry generally and local competitors in particular. Compensation for senior managers in large measure was provided through a management fund that granted substantial bonuses based on the bank's overall profits. Such an incentive program would seem to guarantee the aggressive pursuit of profits and discourage discrimination in pay because, presumably, it eats into the potential profits of top officers and shareholders.
7 - Corporate Politics, Rationalization, and Managerial Discretion: EEOC v. Sears, Roebuck & Co.
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 203-243
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Summary
We now turn to patterns of gender inequality in pay in private sector organizations. The first case we consider is the massive litigation brought by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) against Sears, Roebuck and Company, at that time the largest retailer of general merchandise in the United States.
Sears employed some 380,000 workers in over 4,000 facilities in 1986 (Sears I, p. 1288; for abbreviations, see the appendix on court documents and case materials). A sophisticated personnel department had been in existence for several decades that ran training programs, regularly collected attitudinal and performance data about employees, and administered batteries of psychological tests used for hiring and promotion decisions. Yet Sears had been built on an ideology of decentralized management. Group, territorial, and store managers had largely unchecked authority in many organizational functions. Among the most significant was discretion in setting the salaries of more than 18,000 middle-level managers and supervisors who reported to them – a group known as “checklist” employees.
In the 1970s the highly decentralized character of Sears's personnel and compensation policies came under internal and external attack. Although Sears had adopted an affirmative action program in 1968, in 1973 the EEOC filed administrative charges of sex discrimination against the company. Perhaps in response to the threat of government sanction, top management made the program mandatory in 1974. Company officials ordered that one out of every two lower-level (known as time-card) positions be filled by women or minorities.
1 - Law, Markets, and the Institutional Construction of Gender Inequality in Pay
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Legalizing Gender Inequality
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- 07 August 2009
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- 28 May 1999, pp 1-22
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Summary
The pay equity movement won its largest legal victory in 1983, when Judge Jack Tanner of the federal District Court of Western Washington found that the State of Washington had discriminated against workers in predominantly female jobs and awarded the plaintiffs a $400 million judgment. The AFSCME decision (so named because the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees brought the lawsuit) catapulted the pay equity issue into instant prominence. In its immediate aftermath, the number of states conducting pay equity studies doubled to thirty-four, and the number of articles on pay equity in leading newspapers quadrupled (McCann 1994, 54–59). The victory was shortlived, however. In 1985, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the AFSCME decision. Then judge, now justice, Anthony Kennedy pronounced, “Neither law nor logic deems the free market a suspect enterprise…. Title VII does not obligate [the State of Washington] to eliminate an economic inequality it did not create” (AFSCME, 1407). According to Justice Kennedy, the plaintiffs not only lacked a legal basis for redress, but the very nature of their thinking – their logic – was wrong. The Ninth Circuit authoritatively denounced plaintiffs' theory of gender-based wage inequality as inconsistent with a core institution of American society – the free market.
The reversal of the AFSCME decision had a devastating effect on the pay equity movement. Other courts followed the AFSCME precedent in rejecting similar claims. Reform activity in states and municipalities slowed to a trickle.
5 - Paternalism and Politics in a University Pay System: Christensen v. State of Iowa
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Book:
- Legalizing Gender Inequality
- Published online:
- 07 August 2009
- Print publication:
- 28 May 1999, pp 119-170
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Summary
We begin with the beginning. In 1974 representatives of female clerical workers at the University of Northern Iowa filed suit claiming that they were the victims of pay discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The university paid predominantly male physical plant workers higher wages, even though many male and female jobs had been assigned identical pay grades based on the results of an internal job evaluation study. After the plaintiffs lost at the trial level, the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected their appeal.
Appellants have failed to demonstrate that the difference in wages paid to clerical and plant employees rested upon sex discrimination and not some other legitimate reason. The evidence shows that UNI paid higher wages to plant workers because wages for similar jobs in the local labor market were higher than the wages established under the Hayes System…. We find nothing in the text and history of Title VII suggesting that Congress intended to abrogate the laws of supply and demand or other economic principles that determine wage rates for various kinds of work. We do not interpret Title VII as requiring an employer to ignore the market in setting wage rates for genuinely different work classifications.
(Christensen v. State of Iowa, 563 F.2d 353 at 355–56 [8th cir. 1977])Before the term became fashionable, Christensen was the first case to present “comparable worth” as a theory of wage discrimination under Title VII.
Legalizing Gender Inequality
- Courts, Markets and Unequal Pay for Women in America
- Robert L. Nelson, William P. Bridges
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- Published online:
- 07 August 2009
- Print publication:
- 28 May 1999
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Legalizing Gender Inequality challenges existing theories of gender inequality within economic, sociological, and legal organizations. The book argues that male-female earnings differentials cannot be explained adequately by market forces, principles of efficiency, or society-wide sexism. Rather it suggests that employing organizations tend to disadvantage holders of predominantly female jobs by denying them power in organizational politics and by reproducing male cultural advantages. These findings contradict major legal precedents which have argued that labor markets and not employers are the source of inequality. The authors further argue that comparable worth is an inappropriate remedy, as such an approach misdiagnoses the causes of gender inequality and often falls prey to the same organizational processes that initially generated this differential. The book argues that the courts have, by uncritically accepting the market explanation for male-female wage disparity, tended to legitimate and to legalize a crucial dimension of gender inequality in American society.
2 - Legal Theories of Sex-Based Pay Discrimination
- Robert L. Nelson, American Bar Foundation Chicago and Northwestern University, Illinois, William P. Bridges, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Book:
- Legalizing Gender Inequality
- Published online:
- 07 August 2009
- Print publication:
- 28 May 1999, pp 25-52
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Summary
The decisions of federal courts in cases alleging sex-based pay discrimination reflect the tension between the law's normative commitment to equality and the courts' reverence for markets and efficiency. County of Washington v. Gunther (452 U.S. 161 [1981]), the Supreme Court ruling that fostered comparable worth litigation in federal courts, can be seen as a response to the antidiscrimination imperative. The Court would not countenance blatant discrimination against women workers just because they held different jobs from the male workers with whom they were compared. In the cases that followed Gunther, however, the lower courts limited its practical effect. They rejected comparable worth theories that relied on job evaluation studies to prove discrimination or that argued that employers were obligated to correct inequities identified in job evaluation results. Moreover, they consistently found that between-job pay differentials reflected market wages or acceptable business judgments rather than invidious, gender-based policies. The courts rendered these judgments case by case. Yet the opinions contain either sweeping references to the “economic realities” confronted by employers or only the most cursory analyses of market conditions. Our reading of the opinions is that the final outcomes of these cases were influenced by a deeply held, promarket ideology that may have extended beyond the facts in particular cases.
Much of the rest of this book examines whether the courts' belief in markets and efficiency as the primary determinants of the male-female wage gap is well founded empirically. The focus of this chapter is the law itself.