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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Index
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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- 05 June 2012
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- 14 April 2005, pp 376-392
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The Physiology of Flowering Plants
- 4th edition
- Helgi Öpik, Stephen A. Rolfe
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis
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- 05 June 2012
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- 14 April 2005
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This latest edition of The Physiology of Flowering Plants has been completely updated to cover the explosion of interest in plant biology. A whole-plant approach has been used to produce an integrated view of plant function, covering both the fundamentals of whole plant physiology and the latest developments in molecular biology. New developments in molecular techniques are explained within practical applications such as genetically modified plants. The book further examines:photosynthesis, respiration, plant growth and developmentnutrition, water relations, photomorphogenesis and stress physiologyfunction, with particular attention to adaptations to different habitats. Each chapter is fully referenced with suggestions for complementary reading including references to original research papers. The Physiology of Flowering Plants is an ideal textbook for undergraduate and postgraduate courses in plant biology.
Chapter 9 - Vegetative development
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
As described in Chapter 8, plant growth results from a combination of cell division, elongation and differentiation, initiated from groups of cells known as meristems. During embryogenesis two meristems are formed – the shoot apical meristem which gives rise to the shoot system, and the root apical meristem which forms the root system. As these primary meristems develop, they give rise to more apical meristems which will form side branches or lateral roots, and lateral meristems which result in an increase in girth (Fig. 9.1).
Together, environmental and internal signals control the rate of growth, the activation of new meristems, and the differentiation of cells and tissues, producing the plant body within the framework of the basic ‘body plan’ of the plant. Meristem activity must be under precise control to generate the specific structures of the plant, but at the same time must be flexible enough to respond to environmental signals. Some of the controlling signals, and the genetic systems on which they act, are discussed below, with reference to the formation of the vegetative organs of the plant. The formation of reproductive structures is covered in Chapter 11.
The structure and activity of the shoot apical meristem
Organ initiation
During the vegetative phase of growth, the shoot apical meristem (SAM) produces stem, leaves and axillary buds in units known as phytomers.
Chapter 8 - Cell growth and differentiation
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
A mature plant is a complex organism made of many different organs, tissue types and cell types. The plant develops from a single cell, the zygote (fertilized egg) which first divides to form an embryo within a seed. By the time the embryo is mature, it already contains distinct meristems, from which the entire plant will develop upon germination. The meristems remain potentially capable of producing new cells throughout the life of the plant, and all of the complex organized structures of the plant develop from these apparently simple meristems by a combination of cell division, cell expansion and cell differentiation, as well as programmed cell death in some cases. Plant cells being immobile, migration of cells, as occurs in animal embryos, plays no part. This is the process of morphogenesis (morpho = form, genesis = origin) briefly touched on in Chapter 6. It is now necessary to consider in depth the manner in which meristems give rise to vegetative and reproductive structures.
The first stage in the formation of any plant structure is production of new cells by cell division. Determination of the position, direction, number and timing of the divisions is the first control stage in the morphogenetic process. Once the cells are formed, the morphogenetic process continues with expansion in a determined direction and to a controlled size. This is accompanied by cellular differentiation.
Preface
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
The history of this book dates back to the late 1960s, when the publishers Edward Arnold launched a series of student textbooks as the Contemporary Biology series, designed to provide up-to-date texts at elementary university and final-year school level. One of the first authors who was asked to contribute, on the topic of flowering plant physiology, was Professor H. E. Street, then Professor of Botany at the University of Wales, Swansea. He asked one of us (H.Ö.) to collaborate, and the first edition was duly published by Edward Arnold in 1970 under the authorship of H. E. Street and Helgi Öpik, and entitled The Physiology of Flowering Plants: Their Growth and Development. The emphasis of the text was on the ‘whole plant’ aspects of physiology. The second edition followed in 1976 and the third in 1984, although Professor Street sadly deceased in 1977.
While the second and third editions were still very much revisions of the original text, the longer time interval since the last edition, and the rapid pace at which biological knowledge has grown in the last few decades, have now necessitated a very thorough rewriting of large sections of the book, and the task has been quite challenging in the face of an accumulation of facts that on occasion has seemed quite overwhelming. It is not possible now to interpret many aspects of plant physiology without reference to molecular biology, even when one is basically interested in functioning at the organismal level.
Chapter 10 - Photomorphogenesis
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
Light is critically important to plants. The majority of them are photosynthetic and light provides the energy source required for growth. However, light is equally important for the normal development of plants as an information medium. In the environment light is a very complex and dynamic signal. It varies in quantity, quality (colour) and direction over timescales ranging from seconds to months (Fig. 10.1). These different variables can indicate the passing of the seasons, the availability of new habitats for growth or the presence of neighbouring vegetation which may compete for resources. Therefore it is not surprising that many aspects of plant growth and development are strongly influenced by light. The plant, too, is a complicated and ever-changing system, and the response of a plant to a given set of environmental conditions will depend upon its developmental state. As discussed in Chapter 9, plants pass through a juvenile state where their response to environmental signals differs from that of mature plants. Likewise, signals which stimulate a mature plant to flower may cause the seed of the same species to germinate – radically different developmental pathways. Similarly, plant responses are species-specific. Whilst a fast-growing weed such as Chenopodium album will respond to shaded conditions (i.e. low light) by elongating rapidly, rainforest tree seedlings can persist under a vegetation canopy for many years and commence rapid growth only when a gap opens in the forest canopy.
Chapter 12 - Growth movements
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Introduction
Although it is a general perception that plants do not move very much, or very quickly, this is true only when seen from a human perspective. If we view the world using time-lapse photography we quickly become aware that all plants are, more or less, in continuous motion. This should not come as a surprise when one considers that plants cannot uproot themselves and relocate to a new environment to maintain suitable conditions; they must orientate their organs, largely by growth, to optimize their interactions with the non-uniform environment which surrounds them. We tend to take it for granted that shoots (usually) grow upwards into the air and roots grow down into the ground; leaves spread out and turn to the light; flowers take up specific orientations. All this positioning is the result of differential growth, growth movements, in precise and complex responses to environmental stimuli, especially light and gravity. Mutants which lack some of these responses are unable to grow normally; e.g. mutant shoots unable to respond to gravity lie on the ground and in the field would be overgrown and perish. Growth movements, imperceptible as they are to instantaneous observation, are vital to the plant. In addition to the relatively slow growth movements, more rapid, visible movements are exhibited by specialized plant organs.
Contents
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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- 05 June 2012
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- 14 April 2005, pp v-viii
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Chapter 11 - Reproductive development
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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- 14 April 2005, pp 270-317
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Summary
Introduction
Reproductive development of flowering plants has been studied for many hundreds, if not thousands, of years. This is not surprising, given the importance of flowering, fruiting and seed setting in agriculture. Society also has a fascination with producing ever more diverse flowers for horticultural purposes. The rose is the oldest known domesticated flower and its popularity endures today; over 103 million roses are sent for Valentine's day in the USA alone, with the global trade in all cut flowers exceeding $4 billion annually. Moreover, since cut flowers are desired at all seasons, control of the time of flowering has great commercial value. Hence a study of the reproductive processes of flowering plants is of great economic importance as well as enabling us to understand the functioning of plants in their natural ecosystems.
Juvenility and ‘ripeness to flower’
Vegetative growth eventually leads to a transition to reproductive development. However, plants will not flower, nor respond to environmental stimuli which ensure subsequent flowering, until they have completed a certain period of vegetative growth and reached ‘ripeness to flower’. A plant can therefore be considered to pass through three growth phases:
juvenile – in which it will not flower
mature – in which appropriate environmental stimuli will evoke flowering
reproductive – in which flowering actually takes place
Chapter 13 - Resistance to stress
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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- 14 April 2005, pp 344-372
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Summary
Introduction
Any factor that acts on an organism so as to impair its functions can be termed a stress. Plants growing in the field are habitually exposed to a number of environmental stresses, e.g. drought and frost. Being sessile organisms, plants cannot move away from a stressful situation. The ability to withstand environmental stresses therefore frequently becomes the limiting factor for plant growth, survival and geographical distribution. Plants in fact may possess remarkable powers of endurance. The vegetation of arctic regions can experience winter temperatures of − 70 ℃, whilst in hot deserts over 50 ℃ may be encountered, and even greater temperature extremes have been survived in the laboratory. On the other hand, some plants are killed by chilling at 10 ℃: species vary tremendously in their resistance towards a particular stress. Studies of the reactions of plants under stress, and mechanisms of stress resistance, are of great practical importance, since agricultural yield is only too often drastically reduced by stressful external factors. The demands of an expanding human population have stimulated research into improving the stress resistance of crop species in order to extend the geographical range of a crop, or with a view to utilizing land areas previously regarded as too ‘extreme’ for cultivation, such as semi-deserts.
Terminology and concepts
Stress is a very wide concept, and while the general idea is easily conveyed it is not so easy to decide where the limits should be drawn. Stress was briefly defined above as ‘impairing function’.
Chapter 6 - Growth as a quantitative process
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
Growth is one of the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristics of living organisms, being the consequence of increase in the amount of living protoplasm. Externally this is manifested by the growing system getting bigger, and growth is therefore often defined as an irreversible increase in the mass, weight or volume of a living system. The size increase must be permanent; the swelling of a cell in water is not growth, being easily reversed by returning the cell to a solution of lower Ψ. It is, however, possible to consider as growth developmental changes not immediately involving an increase in size. An amphibian embryo, or a Selaginella female gametophyte, for a long time utilizes the nutrient store with which it was released from the parent, to produce many new cells without any increase in overall size, yet growing in the sense that living protoplasm is increasing at the expense of stored nutrients. Again, if dry mass is measured, a flowering plant seedling loses dry mass while utilizing reserves and growing.
Growth is an exceedingly complex process. Every reaction associated with the synthesis and maintenance of living protoplasm is associated with it, which makes it complicated enough at the cellular level. At the organismal level, it means the coordinated multiplication, size increase and specialization of millions of cells, all arranged in precise positions. Growth processes are also synchronized with seasonal changes, plants responding to appropriate environmental stimuli to achieve this synchronization.
Part II - Growth and development
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Chapter 4 - Mineral nutrition
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
Of the naturally occurring 92 elements of the periodic table, about a quarter are essential to plants. Water and CO2 provide the plant with the elements C, H and O; the remaining necessary elements are obtained by flowering plants as inorganic mineral ions, mostly from the soil solution. Water uptake and ion uptake are to some extent linked, e.g. water uptake mediated by root pressure depends on ion uptake, and the rate of ion uptake tends to increase with increasing rate of transpiration. But the uptake of mineral ions differs greatly from water uptake in that it proceeds against the free energy gradient of the ions and is dependent on metabolic energy. The transport of ions through cellular membranes is mediated by numerous membrane-bound transport proteins which enable the plant to exert considerable control and selectivity over the process. This is vital if the nutritional needs of the plant are to be satisfied. Heterotrophic organisms obtain nearly all their essential elements via plants and the element composition of plants is accordingly of major interest and importance also for human nutrition.
Essential elements
Definition: macronutrients and micronutrients
An element is classed as essential to a plant if the plant cannot complete its life cycle without it and no other element can substitute for it. The effect of the element must also be direct, i.e. it should not act by promoting the uptake of another essential element, or by retarding the absorption of a toxic one.
Part I - Nutrition and transport
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Chapter 7 - Plant growth hormones
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
A constant theme underlying the study of plant physiology is that plant growth and development are controlled by the environment. Plants being sessile organisms, it is not surprising that their development is exquisitely sensitive to a wide range of environmental factors and is extremely plastic, i.e. very flexible. There are underlying basic patterns in plant development, but there is considerable regulation by environmental signals of how and when these patterns are expressed.
In addition, there are internal signals within the plant. One of the most important factors influencing the development of a cell is its position within the plant. A plant cell develops depending on its location in relation to neighbouring cells, and this in turn will determine its response to environmental signals. For example, the response to drought of a cell within the leaf will differ in many ways from that of a cell within the root. The key question arises of how a complex set of environmental factors can interact with cells to elicit an appropriate response within a given cell type: what are the internal signals that communicate between cells, and mediate between environmental factors and the plant tissues?
It has been known for decades (if not centuries) that plants contain a range of compounds which have profound effects on many aspects of growth and developmental physiology, and act as a means of communication within the plant. These plant growth hormones, sometimes referred to as plant growth regulators, are still being discovered.
Frontmatter
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Appendix
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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Summary
NAMING GENES, PROTEINS AND MUTATIONS
A consistent nomenclature has been adopted for naming genes and proteins. A wild-type gene is written in italic as e.g. CRY1 (for cryptochrome) whilst mutated versions of it are written cry1. The first mutation discovered in the gene would be cry1–1, the second cry1–2, etc. In the case of cryptochrome (and many other proteins, including phytochrome) the receptor consists of a protein (the apoprotein) and a chromophore which together make the functional protein (holoprotein). The apoprotein is written as CRY1 whilst the holoprotein is written as cry1. The same mutants are often isolated by different research groups and are given different names. Once a class of genes has been relatively well studied they are sometimes renamed to avoid confusion.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The system of SI units, Système International d'Unités, was introduced in 1960. In this system, the basic units of mass, length and time are the kilogram (kg), metre (m), and second (s); a number of common units, e.g. litre and hour, are abandoned. Older units, however, still abound even in current scientific literature because of their convenience (and familiarity), and some are retained in this text. Note that there is no full stop after the abbreviations, and no ‘s’ to denote the plural: thus we write 1 m and 10 m.
Chapter 5 - Translocation of organic compounds
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Introduction
Flowering plants are described as being autotrophic, ‘self-feeding’, capable of synthesizing all their organic material via photosynthesis. But a flowering plant is a complex organism with cells and organs specialized for diverse functions, and only the green photosynthetic cells are truly autotrophic; they must accordingly supply all the non-photosynthetic parts with organic carbon. Over small distances, i.e. between individual cells and within small groups of cells, chemicals can move by diffusion through plasmodesmata, or across plasma membranes by diffusion and by active transport. But organic materials must move for long distances; the growing tips of the roots of a tree are many metres away from the nearest photosynthetic leaves and even in a herbaceous plant diffusion would be too slow for the distances involved. We have already seen (Chapter 3) how water moves in plants over long distances in a specialized transport tissue, the xylem. The subject of this chapter is the long-distance, multidirectional movement or translocation of organic compounds which takes place in the phloem.
Phloem as the channel for organic translocation
Evidence for translocation in the phloem
In flowering plants, the xylem is regularly associated with the phloem, the two together making up the vascular tissues. In young organs the two tissues are in contact; when secondary growth occurs they become separated by the vascular cambium, the meristem which then adds xylem to one side and phloem to the other.
Chapter 3 - Water relations
- Helgi Öpik, University of Wales, Swansea, Stephen A. Rolfe, University of Sheffield
- Edited in consultation with Arthur J. Willis, University of Sheffield
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- The Physiology of Flowering Plants
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Summary
Introduction
Liquid water is absolutely necessary for life as we know it. Firstly it is the solvent and reaction medium of all living cells, which contain some 75–90% water by weight; secondly it is a reactant in many metabolic processes; and thirdly, as the hydration water of macromolecules, it forms part of the structure of protoplasm, existing as ‘liquid ice’ in a labile but ordered structure. The physicochemical properties of water (H2O) are unique; heavy water (D2O or DHO), containing deuterium, the heavy isotope of hydrogen, differs sufficiently to be toxic. In multicellular organisms, water provides the transport medium. Additionally, for plants, water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis and produces the turgor pressure of water-filled vacuoles which gives mechanical rigidity to thin-walled tissues, while some movements of plant organs occur as a result of turgor pressure changes. Plant cell expansion is driven by turgor pressure and hence growth rates depend on hydration levels.
On ‘dry’ land, the highly hydrated body of a terrestrial plant in many situations tends to lose water to the environment, especially to the atmosphere, in accordance with gradients of free energy of water. There are few habitats where plants do not suffer some water shortage at least intermittently. The necessity for maintaining an adequate internal water content has been a major factor in the evolution of land plants with respect to structure and numerous aspects of physiology.