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26 - Projective assessment using the Draw-A-Person Test and Kinetic Family Drawing in South Africa
- from Section Two - Personality and projective tests: conceptual and practical applications
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- By Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand, R. Gericke, University of the Witwatersrand, K. Bain, University of the Witwatersrand
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
- Print publication:
- 31 December 2013, pp 375-393
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Summary
Interest in human figure drawings and their evaluation dates back to the 18th century. Drawings are considered to serve as projective techniques, as they present individuals with an unstructured and ambiguous situation, inviting them to make meaning of these tasks by drawing on their own life experiences. This allows for the exploration of a rich tapestry of material which depicts their inner world, emotions, perceptions, personality, needs and interpretation of reality (Zubin, Eron & Schumer, 1965) which may not be possible through direct communication (Machover, 1949/1980). The use of projective techniques is based on the assumption that the individual is driven by psychological forces blocked from consciousness. Unconscious conflicts are revealed by the projection of the individual's characteristic modes of response, thought processes, impulses, needs and anxieties onto the unstructured projective task. Projection is commonly regarded as the general tendency to externalise aspects of the self (Rabin, 1981).
According to Machover (1949/1980), the human figure drawing can be understood to be the way the individual projects his inner reality of past experience and current moods, tensions and concerns by the symbolism of his body image. This inner reality is the self-concept. The psychoanalytic view holds that there are both conscious and unconscious aspects of the self, and it is the unconscious expression of conflicts, body image, self and the environment as well as sexual identity which is projected in drawings (Furth, 1988; Hammer, 1997; Koppitz, 1968). Kanchan, Khan, Singh, Jahan and Sengar (2010) point out that projection of the self should not be defined in narrow terms, as it includes not only the individual's actual self but also the ideal self and the feared self. The theoretical concepts that underlie projective assessment are discussed more fully in chapter 24 of this volume.
Despite the ongoing controversy surrounding projective drawing tests (Matto & Naglieri, 2005; Roback, 1968; Swensen, 1968; Williams, Fall, Eaves & Woods-Groves, 2006), human figure drawings remain among the most widely used psychological tests by clinicians (Camara, Nathan & Puente, 2000). The Draw-A-Person (DAP) Test is rated among the top 10 to 15 most frequently used projective tests abroad (Hojnoski, Morrison, Brown & Matthews, 2006; Yama, 1990) and a similar rating is given for the popularity of the DAP and the Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD) amongst South African practitioners (Foxcroft, Paterson, Le Roux & Herbst, 2004).
8 - The Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System
- from Section One - Cognitive tests: conceptual and practical applications
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- By Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
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- 31 December 2013, pp 104-119
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Summary
Psychologists who missed the cognitive revolution entirely may not even suspect the great chasm between their testing methods and a theoretical framework needed to drive practice.
(Das, Naglieri & Kirby, 1994, p.4)The value of conventional intelligence quotient (IQ) testing, which is widely used on a global level, has been acknowledged and demonstrated over the years as it provides a structured method of evaluating achievement and an individual's acquisition of knowledge (Naglieri & Kaufman, 2001; Sattler, 2008). IQ testing has also shown its merit within education systems throughout the world (Kaufman, 1979). However, since what is described as the ‘cognitive revolution’ in the field of psychology in the 1960s (Miller, 2003; Naglieri, 1999a), there have been ongoing controversies about issues such as the definition and assessment of intelligence, as well as cultural and racial differences in IQ test results. Some have argued that IQ tests such as the Binet and Wechsler Scales, which were first developed in the early part of the last century, are based on a narrow and outmoded conceptualisation of intelligence as a general intellectual construct (‘g’) which is fixed and immutable (Das & Abbott, 1995; Naglieri, 1989). This argument can also be applied to the currently used standardised South African IQ tests, such as the Junior South African Individual Scales and the Senior South African Individual Scales which were first published in the 1980s.
A major criticism of traditional approaches to intelligence testing is that they place individuals with limited language or academic skills at an unfair disadvantage. Naglieri and Kaufman (2001) assert that the verbal subtests of conventional IQ measures could be conceived more as measures of achievement and acquired knowledge, rather than of underlying ability. The difficulty arises as acquired knowledge is influenced by the individual's formal learning experiences and cultural exposure. These issues are of vital importance within the multilingual South African context, where children have vastly different cultural experiences and a legacy of unequal early learning and schooling opportunities.
31 - A family consultation model of child assessment
- from Section Three - Assessment approaches and methodologies
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- By Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
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- 31 December 2013, pp 461-473
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Summary
Innovative assessment procedures, which take into account contextual factors such as language, culture, education, socio-economic status and recent educational policy developments, are needed in South Africa. In the democratic South Africa, Education White Paper 6 (Department of Education, 2001) calls for assessment practices that are less expert-driven, non-deficit-focused and linked to curriculum support. The Initial Assessment Consultation (IAC) approach, which is the focus of this chapter, encompasses and attempts to address these needs. This shared problem-solving approach to child assessment has at its core a focus on collaboration with parents and caregivers, as well as with significant others such as teachers, with the purpose of facilitating learning and the empowerment of clients. The approach is based on a sound philosophical and theoretical foundation and is a departure from the belief that assessment and intervention are discrete clinical procedures.
The IAC approach to child assessment, which represents a paradigm shift in assessment practice, was initially developed by Adelman and Taylor (1979) at the Fernald Institute at the University of California to address prevailing criticisms of conventional assessment procedures. For more than two decades, the IAC family participation and consultation model of assessment has been adapted and implemented at the University of the Witwatersrand. The key principles of the IAC approach are applied by many local professionals and training institutions that work within the assessment, remedial and educational fields. Research has supported the usefulness of this holistic and egalitarian form of assessment (Amod, 2003; Amod, Skuy, Sonderup & Fridjhon, 2000; Levin, 2003; Manala, 2001; Skuy, Westaway & Hickson, 1986; Warburton, 2008), which mirrors the more democratic environment of post-apartheid South Africa, with its endorsement of human rights, its sensitivity towards cross-cultural differences and its changing educational policies on assessment practice.
Background to the IAC approach
The IAC model provides an optimal and broad framework for assessment practice. Adelman and Taylor (1983; 1993; 2010) reject the reductionist view of behavioural, emotional and learning problems as reflecting internal deficits and pathology within the individual.
24 - Projective assessment of adults and children in South Africa
- from Section Two - Personality and projective tests: conceptual and practical applications
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- By K. Bain, University of the Witwatersrand, Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand, R. Gericke, University of the Witwatersrand
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
- Print publication:
- 31 December 2013, pp 336-354
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Summary
This chapter provides an introduction to the theoretical concepts that underlie projective assessment and includes a brief history of projective testing. The current debates in the literature that surround projective assessment are outlined, and the limitations of projective tests are discussed in relation to research conducted into the reliability and validity of various projective tests. The criticisms levelled against these tests are balanced against arguments for their clinical utility. The prevalence of this form of testing in clinical practice, internationally and in South Africa, is briefly discussed, as is the use of this form of testing in adult and child populations. The use of these tests in forensic settings is also briefly addressed; however, research into the cross-cultural validity of this form of testing is a central focus of the chapter. Common problems relating to the cross-cultural use of these Westernised assessment measures are also outlined. A discussion of the fact that clinical practice often precedes research regarding adaptations in the use of tests is included, and clinical illustrations of adapted interpretations accounting for socio-economic and cultural variations are described. The necessity for socio-cultural awareness in mental health practitioners in relation to this form of testing is highlighted.
The scope of projective assessment
Projective assessment refers to the measurement of personality traits or characteristics, using instruments in which the stimulus is a task or activity that is vague or ambiguous. These tests allow for a less restricted response from the person being assessed than the limited choice of responses usually associated with objective personality measures, such as ‘yes’, ‘no’, ‘sometimes’ or a Likert scale. Typically, when using projective assessments, a task such as responding to an image, telling a story about a picture, completing an unfinished sentence or drawing a picture is presented to a person who is then required to generate a response, with minimal external guidance or constraints imposed on the nature of that response. The assumption that underlies these tests is that when a person is called upon to generate a response in the face of ambiguity, the person projects elements of her personal characteristics into her response (Meyer & Kurtz, 2006).
25 - The use of the Children's Apperception Test and Thematic Apperception Test in South Africa
- from Section Two - Personality and projective tests: conceptual and practical applications
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- By R. Gericke, University of the Witwatersrand, K. Bain, University of the Witwatersrand, Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
- Print publication:
- 31 December 2013, pp 355-374
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Summary
This chapter explores the practice and cross-cultural application of two thematic projective techniques, the Children's Apperception Test (CAT) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). A brief introduction to, and definition of, thematic storytelling techniques is followed by discussions on reliability and validity, test administration and clinical application. The chapter has a strong focus on clinical application within a South African context and provides guidelines for clinicians. The focus on case material also allows the utility of these tests to be illustrated in depth.
The development of apperception testing
The origin of projective testing was Herman Rorschach's (1924a; 1924b) accidental discovery that people automatically and unconsciously project their own hidden desires, fears, wishes, feelings, conflicts and attitudes onto unstructured stimuli. As with individual interpretations given to a work of art, so we canvas our experiences, perceptions and reflections from an internal palette. He termed this process ‘apperception’ (Rorschach, 1924b, p.359). The concept ‘projection’, however, developed from Freud's (1938) theory of the unconscious and of the consequent use of projection as a defence. Freud conceived of the unconscious as a repository of instincts, wishes and fantasies deemed unacceptable to consciousness, thereby becoming the object of repression, hidden from conscious awareness. These unacceptable feelings and impulses are projected outside the self so that, for example, a group of people are experienced in a certain way that is more telling of the subject than of the other. To quote Freud, ‘experience shows that we understand very well how to interpret in other people … the same acts which we refuse to acknowledge as being mental in ourselves’ (1955, p.171). Projective assessments are therefore administered to describe a person's subjective experience of him- or herself, and relationships with others and the world, often in response to queries about the psychological underpinnings of reported emotional and/or behavioural problems, or to assist with diagnosing emotional disturbances.
Morgan and Murray (1935) also referred to the process as ‘apperception’ and described a technique for investigating fantasies in their introduction to the TAT. Subsequent to this initial introduction, the TAT has seen numerous revisions, inclusion of scoring systems and development of an apperception test specifically tailored for use with children (Bellak, 1944; 1954; 1971; 1975; 1986; 1993; Bellak & Abrams, 1997; Bellak & Bellak, 1949; 1965).
6 - School readiness assessment in South Africa
- from Section One - Cognitive tests: conceptual and practical applications
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- By Z. Amod, University of the Witwatersrand, D. Heafield, registered educational psychologist working in private practice
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
- Print publication:
- 31 December 2013, pp 74-85
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Local and international research provides considerable evidence that the early years of children's lives are critical for their future development. Assessment measures can be used effectively to prevent, identify and address barriers to learning and development. Most psychology practitioners would agree that both formal and informal assessment procedures can guide parents, caregivers and educators in establishing a solid foundation for children's growth, development and potential through the provision of optimal enrichment and learning activities, as well as socio-emotional support.
The primary purpose of school readiness assessment is to predict readiness for school entry and to identify preschool children who may benefit from additional stimulation programmes, learning support or retention. Focus is placed on physical development, cognitive skills and academic readiness, as well as on the child's socio-emotional functioning. Factors considered in school readiness assessment include the child's emotional maturity, ability to follow directions, and ability to work cooperatively with peers and adult figures. In addition to early identification and support, a school readiness assessment can also serve the purpose of reassuring parents and caregivers that their child is progressing adequately. In some instances a child may be accepted a year early into school to accommodate his or her need for accelerated learning.
While school readiness assessment is an established field of practice, it has generated a great deal of controversy amongst practitioners and researchers (Carlton & Winsler, 1999; Dockett & Perry, 2009; Freeman & Brown, 2008; Goldblatt, 2004; Graue, 2006; Maxwell & Clifford, 2004). It remains a highly contentious issue in South Africa for several reasons. Concerns have been raised about the historical misuse of assessment measures, which have been seen as perpetuating exclusionary practices and an inequitable education system (Kriegler & Skuy, 1996). Some of the intellectual and school readiness assessment tools that have been locally developed have outdated norms (Foxcroft, Paterson, Le Roux & Herbst, 2004). In addition, many were not normed on a fully representative South African sample. Examples are the Junior South African Individual Scales (JSAIS) (published in 1981 and standardised for English- and Afrikaans-speaking individuals) and the Aptitude Test for School Beginners (ASB). The latter is an individually/group-administered school readiness test which was first devised in 1974 (and revised in 1994), to be used from the sixth to the eighth week of the school year.
9 - Dynamic assessment in South Africa
- from Section One - Cognitive tests: conceptual and practical applications
- Edited by Sumaya Laher, Kate Cockcroft
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- Book:
- Psychological Assessment in South Africa
- Published by:
- Wits University Press
- Published online:
- 21 April 2018
- Print publication:
- 31 December 2013, pp 120-136
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This chapter outlines current developments in relation to dynamic assessment (DA), an interactive assessment procedure that uses deliberate and planned mediational teaching and assesses the impact of that teaching on subsequent performance. The objective of the chapter is to critically review the major criticisms of the traditional ‘static’ testing approach, discuss the theoretical basis of the DA approach and its relevance within the South African context, and present an overview of current empirical research on DA.
There has been an increased demand worldwide for nondiscriminatory assessment procedures (Haywood & Tzuriel, 1992; Hessels & Hessels-Schlatter, 2002; Nell, 2000; Seabi & Amod, 2009; Skuy, Gewer, Osrin, Khunou, Fridjhon & Rushton, 2002; Tzuriel & Kaufman, 1999). The major criticism regarding the use of standardised intelligence tests is that they primarily reflect Eurocentric, middleclass values and attitudes (Nell, 2000). It is argued that they do not accommodate diversity in relation to culture, language, values, experiential background and cognitive styles. Given the political, socio-economic and educational conditions that have prevailed in South Africa under the apartheid regime and as an effect of its legacy, the application of traditional assessment procedures may be unfair to certain groups of people. Alternative, more equitable forms of assessment such as the DA approach have been proposed by several theorists and researchers for use within the multilingual and multicultural South African context (Amod, 2003; De Beer, 2005; Fairon, 2007; Floquet, 2008; Gewer, 1998; Lipson, 1992; Murphy & Maree, 2006; Seabi & Amod, 2009; Skuy et al., 2002).
A further criticism directed at the use of traditional intelligence tests/ psychometric evaluations is that the scores are derived from a ‘static’ testing situation which provides minimal information regarding the individual's learning potential or potential to respond to intervention. ‘Static’ testing refers to the administration of tests in a standardised manner as stipulated in test manuals. Intervention which could include feedback, training and teaching is refrained from in the traditional static testing approach (Hessels-Schlatter & Hessels, 2009). The limitation of this approach is that the knowledge and skills needed to fulfil the requirements of tests have not necessarily been taught to the child, and this will undoubtedly limit his or her ability to perform well on these tests. In essence, the emphasis in DA is on intra-individual change rather than inter-individual difference.