1. Introduction
Circularity is the practice of optimizing resources and minimizing waste across the entire production and consumption cycle, further emphasizing sustainability and economic efficiency. Circular practices dictate a shift away from the traditional take-make-use-dispose paradigm, which creates a negative impact, such as rising carbon emissions, increased pressures on landfills, unsustainable levels of water extraction, and widespread ecosystem pollution (Holcim Foundation, 2022), leading to the elimination of waste (Reference Mahl, Petry and KöhlerMahl et al., 2023) and priority for efficiency. However, to adopt circularity, it is paramount to embrace Designing for Circularity (DfC) and its principles. Design plays a fundamental role in the transition to circularity as this transition necessitates the fundamental reshaping of several facts of society. DfC invokes creative thought, leading to design with longevity, repairability, and consideration of the entire lifecycle of products and systems. It represents a critical pathway toward addressing pressing global environmental issues and building a more sustainable and equitable world for future generations. DfC is a powerful concept aiming to lessen the impact of linear production and consumption systems. Unlike the traditional linear take-make-dispose model, DfC focuses on creating products and systems that minimize waste, extend product lifecycles, and prioritize sustainability. It is about reinventing how products are envisaged, produced, and consumed, with prominence on durability, repairability, and recyclability. Adopting DfC principles can reduce negative environmental impacts associated with linear consumption patterns, conserve scarce resources, and contribute to a more sustainable and regenerative future.
Furthermore, circular and sustainable design strategies are innovative approaches that can foster the development of self-sustaining industrial ecosystems. One such system is the concept of Factory in Space (FIS) (Reference Abdulhamid, Terzi and SullivanAbdulhamid et al., 2023). FIS dictates the servicing, manufacturing, and assembly of components outside the Earth’s atmosphere, circumnavigating logistical obstacles. FIS encompasses several in-orbit activities, including refueling, repair and maintenance, logistics, and waste management(see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Summary of FIS activities
The wide range of FIS activities can potentially improve and benefit human spaceflight. Servicing operations such as deorbiting and refueling reduce collision chances and provide a more robust communication infrastructure. Another impact of the FIS concept is waste management in space exploration. As space exploration progresses, waste, including biological waste, clothing, packaging, and solid structures, poses a pressing issue that requires careful disposal strategies (Reference Linne, Palaszewski, Gokoglu, Gallo, Balasubramaniam and HegdeLinne et al., 2014). The conventional practice of disposing waste by burning it up in the Earth’s atmosphere using empty supply vehicles becomes impractical for missions conducted far from Earth. Thus, alternative waste management methods aligned with space travel objectives must be explored. In this regard, the concept of circular and sustainable design, rooted in the principles of Circular Economy (CE), emerges as a promising approach (Reference Jibril, Sipan, Sapri, Shika, Isa and AbdullahJibril et al., 2012; Reference Manickam and DuraisamyManickam & Duraisamy, 2018). This aims to minimize resource consumption and maximize resource utilization in space, creating a closed-loop system that aligns with the sustainable development goal of “responsible production and consumption” and enables the establishment of a self-sustaining factory ecosystem (Reference Acerbi and TaischAcerbi & Taisch, 2020). The limited resources in isolated colonies, such as space stations, necessitate finding ways to prolong the use of materials and goods, creating multiple product lifecycles. As space exploration expands its horizons, establishing a closed loop that emphasizes recycling and reuse reduces reliance on Earth for resupply. It addresses ethical concerns regarding space waste generation and the preservation of extraterrestrial ecosystems (Reference Berliner, Hilzinger, Abel, McNulty, Makrygiorgos, Averesch, Sen Gupta, Benvenuti, Caddell, Cestellos-Blanco, Doloman, Friedline, Ho, Gu, Hill, Kusuma, Lipsky, Mirkovic, Luis Meraz and ArkinBerliner et al., 2021). It is worth noting that in addition to the waste generated in the core module, there is also waste resulting from the launch and entry of artificial objects into outer space, commonly known as space debris or space junk (Reference Leonard and WilliamsLeonard & Williams, 2023). Space debris, as defined by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (Reference GarciaGarcia, 2021), is natural materials and artificial debris in the Earth’s Orbit. Orbital debris is a class of space debris that only includes artificial items launched into space (Reference Jakhu, Chen and GoswamiJakhu et al., 2020). The threat posed by the accumulation of orbital debris has been highlighted (Reference Murtaza, Pirzada, Xu and JianweiMurtaza et al., 2020) with a conclusion that the danger of a catastrophic occurrence increases if the population of orbital debris is not reduced. Moreover, it has been argued (Reference Clormann and Klimburg-WitjesClormann & Klimburg-Witjes, 2022) that space debris is anything but a distant outer space phenomenon; it is a subject of responsibility and sustainability. Therefore, FIS cannot only lead to a thriving space economy but also help reduce the waste and clutter in Orbit, making space exploration more circular and sustainable.
1.1. Research objective
FIS is a rapidly emerging and ambitious concept with the potential for a transformative impact. While some researchers have highlighted this potential (Reference Bhundiya, Royer and CorderoBhundiya et al., 2022; Reference Makaya, Pambaguian, Ghidini, Rohr, Lafont and MeurisseMakaya et al., 2023; Reference Zocca, Wilbig, Waske, Günster, Widjaja, Neumann, Clozel, Meyer, Ding, Zhou and TianZocca et al., 2022a), there is a notable absence of literature on the implication and applications of DfC strategies in FIS. Hence, this study aims to highlight the role of DfC practices in the concept of FIS by identifying the applications and implications of such practices in actualizing FIS. A narrative literature review is employed to establish the role of DfC strategies in FIS through the investigation of the following research question:
What are the applications and implications of circular design practices for a Factory in Space?
This work aims to answer this research question by identifying the role of DfC in FIS activities. This would provide insight into some principles guiding the DfC process in FIS. Finally, the challenges and areas of further research are identified. This work could be a basis for practitioners and researchers to build future research. The method of collection of papers has been previously reported (Reference Abdulhamid, Sullivan and TerziAbdulhamid et al., 2025).
2. Design for circularity for factory in space
The value obtained from extraterrestrial operations such as telecommunication and weather forecasts has become vital to the activities of the modern day. However, the traditional space industry’s model of launching single-use, disposable systems has led to an increasing and uncontrollable growth of space debris and, subsequently, orbital traffic. As this trend continues and approaches saturation of useable Orbit space, the risk of collision increases (Kessler’s syndrome) (Reference Kessler and Cour-PalaisKessler & Cour-Palais, 1978). At a certain point, this will make it impossible to launch any new system/satellite into Orbit, hence affecting daily activities on Earth. To prevent such scenarios, designers and engineers came up with the circular concept of FIS, which is rooted in the principles of CE (Reference Abdulhamid, Terzi and SullivanAbdulhamid et al., 2023). Circularity is not just about creating value at the end of life (recycling, reusing, repurposing) but also about the beginning of the life of components and systems. Circularity is about designing for responsible waste management by extending the lifecycle of space systems, designing for modularity and reducing complexity, and enabling on-orbit operations and services (Reference MoribaMoriba, 2024). In this context, for a fast and reliable response, the flexibility of AM provides ready-to-use parts directly from stock, increasing the possibility of reuse and recyclability. Similarly, modular designs would enhance space exploration by improving the ease of repair and upgrading components, elongating the operation period beyond a system’s shelf life (Reference Abdulhamid, Brendan, Monica and TerziAbdulhamid et al., 2024).
The role of circularity in FIS is not limited to waste management and lifecycle. It extends to in-situ material utilization (ISMU) and reduction of launch constraints. Transferring materials from Earth for FIS applications during missions is not optimal, especially during long-term missions. The launch volume and costs associated with the additional payload make it pertinent to locally source/produce or sustain materials during space missions. Therefore, for extended missions, using in-situ material must be of utmost priority if the concept of FIS is to be actualized. ISMU refers to exploiting locally established materials to support/enhance space missions. The idea of ISMU for FIS envisions a scenario where material launch from Earth would be bypassed, and locally sourced materials would be used for manufacturing rigid and complex structures in space. The European Space Agency’s (ESA) bid to achieve CE in space by 2050, as illustrated in Figure 2, resulted in the On-Orbit Manufacture, Assembly, and Recycling (OMAR) project (Jessica Reference DelavalDelaval, 2022), demonstrating that the development of circularity in the space economy could reduce launch masses by taking advantage of materials, equipment, or even systems already in Orbit. This would result in less consumption and exploitation of raw materials on Earth while lowering the number of launches and re-entries.
Space systems designed for circularity could be assembled and manufactured directly in Orbit (Reference Abdulhamid, Brendan, Monica and TerziAbdulhamid et al., 2024), leading to faster development times since the systems and components would be designed to be built and tested directly in Orbit. This would help circumnavigate the constraints imposed by launch limitations. Finally, achieving circularity in the space economy could enhance the sustainability of the orbits by reducing the accumulated debris through ISMU and reducing the need for the continuous launch of new satellites.
Figure 2. ESA’s transition to CE in space (Jessica Reference DelavalDelaval, 2022)
3. Key principles of Design for Circularity
The DfC process represents an innovative approach to product development and sustainability. It encompasses several key stages and incorporates design thinking and human-centered design techniques. DfC, from the aspect of FIS, means designing for robustness and longevity. Several specific design strategies are possible, including designing robustly, meaning for increased wear and tear resistance, but also designing for ease of disassembly, ease of repair and maintenance, flexibility, and maximum performance. Considering that system elements have different lifespans, designers must gain a deep understanding of the systems and their environment (outer space). This is essential for defining the challenges, objectives, and strategies of the system so that they are tailored to meet real-world needs effectively. Subsequent stages involve ideation, prototyping, and testing, focusing on creating products and systems that align with CE principles. This can be achieved by evaluating design decisions based on their impact on the future through end-of-life strategies and lifecycle analysis. DfC means considering how components and systems will perform throughout their planned utilization and beyond. This section highlights some key factors that influence the DfC for FIS (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Factors influencing the DfC process for FIS
1. Material Selection: Transportation of materials from Earth for FIS applications during missions could be more sustainable. The costs and launch constraints associated with the additional payload highlight the importance of locally sourcing/producing or sustaining materials during space missions. Therefore, for extended missions, using in-situ material must be of utmost priority if the concept of FIS is to be actualized. ISMU refers to the exploitation of locally established materials to support/enhance space missions. Several sources of material available in outer space could be utilized for FIS applications. Raw materials in this context are the materials that are readily available in extraterrestrial environments such as lunar and Martian regolith. In the case of this kind of material, the value that can be gained also heavily depends on the available technology. These materials might require additional processes (Reference Francesco, Ettorre, Acerbi and SullivanFrancesco et al., 2024) before being used with traditional manufacturing technologies or need a new technology to manufacture rigid structures directly. Researchers have relied on developing simulants to imitate the properties of several space-based materials to study the raw materials found in extraterrestrial environments. The scarcity of materials for investigation also further limits the development of relevant material processing technology for implementation in FIS.
Notwithstanding, researchers have reported on the possibility of extracting relevant resources from raw materials found in extraterrestrial environments (Reference Makaya, Pambaguian, Ghidini, Rohr, Lafont and MeurisseMakaya et al., 2023). Other than raw materials, space debris is another material available for ISMU. Space debris is any material outside Earth’s atmosphere due to the launch and entry of artificial objects into outer space. Generally, these materials can be found as debris, defunct space platforms roaming in Orbit, and materials generated from crewed missions. The debris value has been perfectly summed up by a NASA report (Reference Colvin, Karcz and WuskColvin et al., 2023) stating, “Recycling space debris may also contribute revenue to nascent markets for in-space manufacturing and assembly if debris can be gainfully reused in space.” This material category generally comprises defunct space systems and satellites roaming in Orbit. Economic value can be obtained from the utilization of materials that exist in the defunct space systems. As stated (Reference KochKoch, 2021), tons of scrap metals roaming in Orbit can be utilized in FIS activities. For instance, they demonstrated that scrapping aluminium in situ is cheaper than launching aluminium directly from the Earth. Furthermore, the value of the estimated 7000 tons of orbital debris is estimated to be between 600 billion and 1.2 trillion dollars (Reference Leonard and WilliamsLeonard & Williams, 2023). The use of debris for ISMU is not only a matter of space exploration but also that of sustainability and responsibility. The occurrence of the Kessler syndrome has already been argued (Reference Murtaza, Pirzada, Xu and JianweiMurtaza et al., 2020). The economic, environmental, and social impact of the Kessler syndrome would be severe, as critical space applications such as communications, weather, climate forecasts, and global monitoring would be affected. Therefore, finding ways to manage the accumulated debris and decelerate the accumulation properly is paramount. For this reason, the implantation of ISMU for in the design of FIS systems could lead to the establishment of a closed-loop factory that not only focuses on the utilization of debris materials but also reduces the reliance on Earth for material resupply.
2. Modular Design: Modular spacecraft design dictates that a modular system comprising standardized components with unique functionality be serially manufactured, connecting subsystems with other components through standardized interfaces and subsequently constructing spacecraft by integrating smaller subsystems. Modularity and FIS share a symbiosis rooted in their core definitions, as modular space systems - designed to be upgraded and refueled – could be launched with fewer modules and fuel than needed for the entire mission duration. The space system, for instance, a satellite, could then be gradually built and refueled at certain intervals depending on the mission needs and requirements. This symbiosis could lead to the reduction of hundreds of kilograms in launch weight and could also positively impact the launch vehicle throw-weight margins. This ability to augment or interchange satellite parts and components in-orbit improves the redundancy of the whole system.
Additionally, launch schedule adherence would be improved, and systems could be launched without critical components, as FIS would install the required parts later. This enhanced flexibility would birth a paradigm shift in the assurance and sustainability of space missions, reducing the requirement for lengthy rigorous testing by relying on the newfound capability to install and remanufacture faulty components in-orbit. In transitioning to a modular system, engineers must rethink how satellites are designed, making them faster to build and more straightforward to launch. For instance, payloads could be independent from buses governed by a shared set of standards. This could lead to a quick integration ahead of launch with the assurance that they would operate as intended. Such progress could unearth new capabilities, such as greater production efficiency and design flexibility. However, significant hurdles remain for a transition to modular space systems. Such as the development and alignment of technologies and standards that would lead to cost savings and, more importantly, functional reliability of the modular components. While modular space systems are still largely theoretical, developing other core concepts, such as satellite servicing, on-orbit manufacturing and assembly, and spacecraft connectors, are accelerating the realization of modular space systems (Reference Abdulhamid, Brendan, Monica and TerziAbdulhamid et al., 2024).
3. Design for Robustness: The modularity of space systems is intertwined with design for robustness, as modularity increases system robustness (Reference Piccolo, Lehmann and MaierPiccolo et al., 2020). Considering the harsh nature of the extraterrestrial environment, the systems must be designed to be least affected by variations in the systems, such as a change in component, severe environmental variations, and impact. Furthermore, designing to increase system and component robustness helps reduce the reliance of FIS activities on resupply from earth since components and system’s durability would be increased while maintaining performance level and complexity. The scarcity of resources that has been highlighted means spare components are not readily available in case of failure during extraterrestrial activities. Therefore, the resilience and robustness of components are essential to achieving circular and sustainable space exploration.
4. Lifecycle Thinking: Lifecycle thinking refers to the evaluation of the environmental impacts of a material, product, or system throughout its lifecycle, considering a cradle-to-grave cycle (Reference Farjana, Mahmud and HudaFarjana et al., 2021). Considering the scarcity of resources in outer space, it is vital to examine material through the lens of material extraction, processing or manufacturing, packaging, transportation, operations performance, and end of life. The accumulation of space waste/debris and the Kessler syndrome means that new space systems require very delicate life-cycle assessment (LCA) such that components at the end of life find new value by following the principles of CE and can be utilized in the ISMU concept. Indeed, it can be stated that LCA is not a stage/step in DfC but rather a factor that is considered at every stage/phase of DfC. It can be concluded that the idea of reuse and recycling is crucial to the concept of FIS, where sustainability and resource efficiency are paramount. This approach aligns with the principles of the CE, where materials are kept in circulation, waste is minimized, and environmental impact is reduced. Designing with lifecycle thinking can lead to establishing a closed-loop system with reduced reliance on Earth to resupply resources.
4. Challenges and opportunities
The dynamic nature outside the earth’s atmosphere dictates that circular design and manufacturing technology cannot be directly adapted to FIS. Multi-physics phenomena such as microgravity, temperature, and operation platform, among others, are not considered during earth-based design and manufacturing processes. Hence, they can be regarded as significant challenges to adapting circularity into the design and manufacturing of space systems. Some of the challenges associated with the integration of circularity into the design and manufacturing of space systems are discussed below:
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Physics: The physics involved in extraterrestrial activities is unique (Reference Bhundiya, Royer and CorderoBhundiya et al., 2022). Several factors must be considered, such as gravitational forces, temperature, radiation, vacuum, and the atmosphere. Moreover, the physics involved in design and manufacturing processes on Earth are usually constant, whereas the physical factors outside the Earth’s atmosphere are typically dynamic. These factors must be integrated into the DfC, manufacturing, and implementation phases of the traditional materials science and engineering paradigm.
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Platform: This challenge is related to the limited availability of platforms to conduct experimental studies. One such platform is parabolic flights (PF). PF gives engineers and scientists a short window (20-30 seconds) to conduct experiments in a simulated space environment (Reference Zocca, Wilbig, Waske, Günster, Widjaja, Neumann, Clozel, Meyer, Ding, Zhou and TianZocca et al., 2022b). Sounding rockets is another platform that is used to simulate microgravity. It is considered a time- and cost-effective platform for simulated space conditions in experiments. They usually offer a window of a couple of minutes at altitudes greater than 100km for scientists and engineers to gather data (Reference Kirchhartz, Hörschgen-Eggers and JungKirchhartz et al., 2018). This challenge of experimental platforms affects the ability to test novel modular and robust designs for FIS.
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Setup: Developing a suitable setup to be deployed in space is as important as the required platform. Most setups are experimental and are meant for demonstration purposes only. Scaling the experimental setups of modular and robust designs to commercial-grade equipment suitable for extraterrestrial environments’ harsh and unique nature remains a challenge.
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Iteration: Developing circular technology for FIS requires understanding the processes under microgravity conditions through several iterations. Each process iteration can take significant time (months and years) (Reference Zocca, Wilbig, Waske, Günster, Widjaja, Neumann, Clozel, Meyer, Ding, Zhou and TianZocca et al., 2022b) and effort to analyze and understand. There is a limitation to process iteration due to the duration of the flights (PF, sounding rocket, etc.), where each iteration cycle lasts months at the maximum. This makes it challenging to perform experimental LCA and understand the potential impacts of the lifecycle of novel DfC strategies for FIS. It is, therefore, paramount to circumvent the limitation of process iteration, which is also tied to the platform constraints.
Among the challenges sighted above, the Multiphysics phenomena can be considered the most urgent, as a fundamental understanding of the extraterrestrial environment is required to develop experimental platforms required to perform extended iterations. Furthermore, other than the challenges posed by the extraterrestrial environment, several areas of FIS require further investigation, considering the implementation of DfC concepts. Some areas of further studies are highlighted as follows:
Material Characterization Enhancements
1. Material characterization and product qualification: Qualification and characterization are integral and expensive parts of product development in the aerospace industry. The properties required of aerospace materials, especially those related to FIS, can be established. However, no generalized standard (such as ISO standards) exists to characterize and qualify FIS-related processes and products. Furthermore, research must focus on developing materials and technology that are easily transferrable and reliable enough to overcome harsh extraterrestrial conditions. DfC guidelines must be created so that components and materials are only considered demonstrated once they can perform in the designated space conditions as intended.
2. Waste management: Waste accumulated during space missions has been stated. Waste management strategies enable the reuse, recycling, or repurposing of manufacturing waste within limited resources. This would allow for the establishment of a closed-loop factory. However, the method of gaining value from the generated waste still needs to be adequately defined. Techniques such as propellants generated from waste and burning of waste in the earth’s atmosphere have either not shown significant promise or are not suitable for deep space exploration. Therefore, there is a need to understand the value of space waste from the perspective of FIS.
Possible Solutions to Space Manufacturing Constraints
1. Energy Harvesting: Energy sources and requirements of FIS are yet to be defined. To achieve circularity in FIS, energy should be sourced in situ considering the resources available in the immediate environment. Under ISMU, locally available solar energy is a popular choice for energy sources. However, sources such as nuclear and hydrogen could also complement solar sources. Furthermore, processing materials in space requires sources such as lasers, microwaves, and other forms of energy. Therefore, a comprehensive definition of energy sources and suitable harvesting techniques must be created.
2. Supply chain and logistics: Optimal transport and supply chain management, such as orbital transportation, storage, and waste management strategies, is vital for circularity. FIS requires a support infrastructure with minimal human interference. Material and product transport to and from the FIS ecosystem needs to be defined with a focus on concepts such as space tug, material mining, integrated processes, and customer identification. Overall, there needs to be a definition of the eco-system of FIS and its needs, which would allow for the identification of suitable circular processes considering the logistical and supply chain demand and constraints.
Regulatory Framework Development
1. Regulatory framework: Complying with rules and regulations is crucial for the safety and success of space operations. Incorporating sustainability through DfC strategies, governance, and socio-economic factors into long-term space explorations would allow for the development of a robust space economy and, in turn, a robust FIS ecosystem. Space regulations generally cover issues such as debris mitigation, licensing of commercial activities, intellectual property, orbital safety, and resource management. However, the current international space law needs to be updated as it was developed before the significant accumulation of orbital debris and the conceptualization of in-orbit operations. Therefore, the inadequacy of the current governing laws requires the development of a regulatory framework for space exploration with the incorporation of FIS activities as significant proponents of the space ecosystem and the identification of private entities as crucial components of the space economy.
5. Conclusion
Considering the limitation of resources in the space environment, space explorations need to be self-sufficient and regenerative by design, hence the concept of Factory in Space (FIS). Significant future value could arise from functions entirely in Orbit, such as on-orbit servicing, research and development, and manufacturing. Super-heavy launch vehicles like SpaceX’s Starship could allow companies to establish FIS. On-orbit, on-demand manufacturing ability can enhance space exploration in several ways. FIS has implications for mission planning and logistics, vehicle design, manufacturing, assembly and integration, and product quality control and assurance. However, the harsh and isolated conditions outside the Earth’s atmosphere make its feasibility challenging. Therefore, adopting Circular Economy (CE) principles in the space economy is paramount. The ability to effectively manage waste is crucial to establishing a CE in space, especially in relation to FIS. The capability to cope with waste management by implementing sustainable and circular design could produce long-term affordable provisions and a sustainable energy production cycle. While private innovators have been identified as critical players in the space economy, governing bodies, such as NASA and ESA, have to continue to foster the implementation of a CE in extraterrestrial activities.
Furthermore, it has been established that circularity in FIS is not just about designing for responsible waste management and end-of-life; it is also about designing for modularity, reducing complexity, and enabling on-orbit operations and services. It extends to in-situ material utilization (ISMU), where the use of locally available materials to produce systems and complements in-situ. ISMU would lead to less reliance on Earth for resupply of materials, lowering the number of lunches, reducing development time since systems would be designed to be built and tested directly in situ, and, more importantly, overcoming the constraints imposed by launch systems. Similarly, modular designs in FIS would enhance space exploration by increasing the ease of repair and upgrading components, elongating the operation period beyond a system’s shelf life. Space systems could then be gradually built and refueled at certain intervals depending on the mission needs and requirements, leading to a reduction in launch weight, and this ability to augment or interchange satellite parts and components in-orbit improves the redundancy of the whole system. However, several challenges have been associated with implementing circularity in FIS concepts. One of the most important challenge is the multi-physics phenomena such as microgravity, temperature, and operation platform, which are either not considered or are static during earth-based design and manufacturing processes. Contrastingly, these phenomena are naturally dynamic outside of the Earth’s atmosphere and impede the adaption of traditional Designing for Circularity (DfC) principles to extraterrestrial environments. Moreover, developing testing platforms and iteration of tests have been highlighted as other challenges associated with developing circular processes for FIS applications. Furthermore, this study presents several areas of further research, such as material characterization and regulatory framework, that researchers and governmental bodies need to focus on in more depth to push closer to the actualization of FIS. Furthermore, while the concept of FIS is still in its infancy, the inherent sustainability it promises indicates a path to achieve long-term success in deep space exploration. However, the several challenges highlighted further demonstrate that the path to actualizing a sustainable on-orbit factory is a challenging one.
While this study shows some promise, there are some associated limitations. Only four factors affecting DfC were highlighted in section 3, whereas there are other factors that could influence DfC in the context of FIS, such as environment (gravity) and functionality among others. An analysis of the significance of the other factors in relation to the selected factors in section 3 could help provide a comprehensive understanding of design for sustainability/circularity in FIS. Furthermore, the arguments presented in this paper would be more impactful with a case study, empirical data, or a framework of how to adopt these practices in the space industry.
In conclusion, this paper highlights the role of DfC concepts in FIS, an analysis currently missing in the literature. It discusses the applications and implications of DfC in space exploration, considering the potential benefits and challenges associated with the concept of FIS. Overall, the ability to manufacture in space could revolutionize space exploration, especially the maintenance and repair of the space vehicle, allowing for more autonomy while handling underlying failures at the space stations.
Acknowledgment
This study was carried out within the MICS (Made in Italy – Circular and Sustainable) Extended Partnership and received funding from the European Union Next-Generation EU (PIANO NAZIONALE DI RIPRESA E RESILIENZA (PNRR) – MISSIONE 4 COMPONENTE 2, INVESTIMENTO 1.3 – DD 1551.11-10-2022, PE00000004). This manuscript reflects only the authors’ views and opinions; neither the European Union nor the European Commission can be considered responsible for them.
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