Introduction

The labour market is a key arena in which the cohesiveness of society is shaped. It is where the economic well-being of individuals and families is determined and their social values and relationship to society are, in part, moulded. It follows that long-term unemployment may have a disintegrative effect leading to economic marginalisation, poverty and social exclusion. Tackling unemployment and economic inactivity are integral to the UK government's strategy for increasing prosperity and reducing social exclusion: ‘Work is the best route out of poverty. It strengthens independence and dignity. It builds family aspirations, fosters greater social inclusion and can improve individuals’ health and well being’ (Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), 2006, p 2).

UK policymakers have increasingly endorsed a ‘workfare’ agenda in relation to labour market policy, drawing heavily on the US model, emphasising individual responsibility in the quest for self-dependency rather than income maintenance. Welfare dependency and passivity are viewed as the primary cause of worklessness, which necessitates a compulsive strategy to enforce work habits. In the UK benefit recipients have, for example, more often been required to attend compulsory work-focused interviews as a condition of benefit receipt. This new regime places a strong emphasis on the work ethic, and citizenship rights are made conditional on a willingness to participate in paid employment.

The number of people in employment in the UK has risen steadily over recent years, so that by July 2006 there were a record 28.97 million in work, with an employment rate of 74.6% (Office for National Statistics (ONS), 2006). At the same time, the level of unemployment has fallen. In July 2006 the International Labour Organisation (ILO) unemployment rate was 5.5% and the Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) claimant count stood at historically low levels (ONS, 2006). However, not all groups have benefited from recent improvements in the economy and labour market. Unemployment and economic inactivity (or ‘worklessness’) have become progressively concentrated within some households, groups and communities. The Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) (2004) identified 16,000 concentrations of worklessness in England at a census super output level and raised concerns about the attitudes and culture of people living in such communities: