ʿAbd al-ʿAzı̄z, Shah. FatawaʿAzı̄zı̄. Karachi: H.M. Saeed Company, 1987.Google Scholar

Abū Gh, ānim, Bishr Ibn Ghānim al-Khursāni. Al-Mudawanna al-Kubrā. Vol. 3, edited by Bājū, Muṣṭafā ibn Ṣalāḥ. Musqaṭ: Wizārat al-Turāth wa al-Thaqāfa, 2007.Google Scholar

Abu Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Google Scholar

Abū Yūsuf, Ya’coub Ibn Ibrāhı̄m. Kitāb al-Kharāj. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 1979.Google Scholar

Abū Zahra, Muḥammad. Tarikh Al-Madhahib Al-Islamiah Fi l-Siyasah Wa Al-Aqa’Id Wa Tarikh Al-Madhahib Al-Fiqhhiyyah. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi, ND.Google Scholar

Ahsan, Abdullah. Ummah or Nation? Identity Crisis in Contemporary Muslim Society. Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1992.Google Scholar

Ahsan, Abdullah. The Organization of the Islamic Conference: An Introduction to Islamic Political Institution. Herndon, VA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1988.Google Scholar

Al-Aghbarı̃, Ismā‘ı̄l ibn Ṣāliḥ. Al-Ibāḍiyya Bayānu Ḥirāsat al-Dı̄n wa-Siyāsat al-Dunyā. Musqaṭ: Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-shuʾūn al-dı̄niyya, 2013.Google Scholar

al-Amali, Zayn al-Dı̄n Ibn Ali (Al-Shahı̄d al-Thānı̄). Munyat Al-Murid Fi Adab Al-Mufid Wa Al-Mustafid, edited by Al-Mukht, āri, Riḍā. Shia Online Library, 1409 AH. Maktab al-‘Alam al-Islami. Accessed at: Shia Library Online in June 2012 at the following link www.shiaonlinelibrary.com.Google Scholar

al-Ḥimsı̄, Lı̄na. Tārı̄kh al-Fatwa fi al-Islām: wa Aḥkāmuha al-Sharʿiyya. Damascus, Syria: Dar ar-Rashı̄d, 1996.Google Scholar

al-Juwayn, ı̄, Abū al-Maʿālı̄. Qiyath Al-Umam Fi Al-Tiyath Al-Dhulam, edited byAbdul-Mun, ’im, Fu’ad and Hilmi, Mustafa. Alexandria, Egypt: Dar Al-Da’wah, ND.Google Scholar

al-Karak, ı̄, Al-Muhaqiq. Al-Kharjiyyat. 1992CE–1413 AH. Mu’assassat Al-Nashr Al-Islami, 1413 AH. Downloaded from Shia Online Library (www.shiaonlinelibrary.com/) November, 2013.Google Scholar

al-Khal, ı̄lı̄, Aḥmad. Bayān Āthār al-Ijtihād wa al-Tajdı̄d fı̄ Tanmiyyat al-Mujtama‘āt al- Islāmiyya. Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs. Muscat, Oman, 2010.Google Scholar

al-Kharusi, Kahlan al-. Āthār Al-Rabı̄’ b. Habı̄b: Edition and Study. First Edition. Harrassowitz Verlag, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvckq4k5. Downloaded from JSTORE: April 12, 2022.Google Scholar

al-Kharusi, Kahlan. Interview. Muscat: Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, August 13, 2015.Google Scholar

al-Khidhri, Muḥammad. Tarikh Al-Tashri’ Al-Islami. Second Edition. Beriut Lebnon, 1997. Dar Al-QalamGoogle Scholar

Al-Kindı̄, Ibrāhı̄m. Al-Ḥukm al-Shar‘i fı̄ al-Mı̄zān al-Uṣūlı̄. Damascus: Dār Qutaybah, 2000.Google Scholar

Al-Kūfı̄, Muḥammad ibn Sulaymān. Kitāb al-Muntakhab. Sana: Dar Al-Hikmah al-Yemaniyyah, 1993.Google Scholar

al-Nawaw, ı̄, Abū Zakariya Yaḥya ibn Sharaf. Adab al-Fatwa Wa Al-Muftı̄ Wa Al-Mustaftı̄. Damascus, Syria: Dar Al-Fikr, 1988.Google Scholar

al-Salimi, Abdulrahman. The Transformation of Religious Learning in Oman: Tradition and Modernity. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 21 2 (April 2011): 147–157.Google Scholar

al-Sāyis, Muḥammad ʿAlı̄. Tafsı̄r āyāt al-Aḥkām, edited by Al-Subki, Abdul Latief, Karsun, Muḥammad Ibrāhı̄m. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Ibn Katheer, 1996.Google Scholar

al-Sāyis, Muḥammad ʿAlı̄. Tarikh al-Fiqh Al-Islami. Beirut, Dar al-Fikr. ND:Google Scholar

al-Sh, āfi‘ı̄, Muḥammad Ibn Idris. Kitāb al-Umm V.4. Cairo, Egypt: Dar Al-Wafa’, 2004.Google Scholar

al-Sh, āfi‘ı̄, Muḥammad Ibn Idris. Al-Risāla fı̄ Usul al-Fiqh: Treatise on the Foundation of Islamic Jurisprudence. Translated by Khadduri, Majid. Second Edition. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Text Society, 1987.Google Scholar

al-Shamela Library Software (Version 3.61). Downloaded from: www.shamela.ws.Google Scholar

al-Shayb, ānı̄, Muḥammad Ibn Al-Ḥasan. Kitāb al-Āthār, edited by Aḥmed ‘Isa, Al-Mansouri. First Edition. Vol. 1–2. Cairo, Egypt: Dar Al-Salaam, 2006.Google Scholar

al-Shayb, ānı̄, Muḥammad Ibn Al-Ḥasan. Kitāb al-Ḥujjah ‘Ala Ahl Al-Madinah, edited by al-Kaylani, Mahdi Ḥasan. Third Edition. Beirut, Lebanon: ‘Alam Al-Kitāb, 1983.Google Scholar

Al-Shayb, ānı̄, Ṭāriq Sāsı̄. Al-Ibāḍiyya Uṣūluhā wa A‘lāmuhā wa Atharuhā fı̄ al Taqrı̄b Bayn al-Madhāhib al-Islāmiyya. Ribāṭ: Al Munaẓẓama al-Islamiyya li’l-Taribiyya wa al-‘Ulūm wa al-Thaqāfa, 2013.Google Scholar

al-Tilims, ānı̄, ‘Ali Ibn Muḥammad. Takhreej al-Dalalat Al-Sam’iyyah. Cairo, Egypt: Al-Majlis Al-’A’ala Lil-Shou’oun Al-Islamiyyah, 1995.Google Scholar

al-Tirmidhi, Muḥammad Ibn Isa. Jami’ Tirmidhi [Al-Jami’ Al-Sahih Sunan Al-Tirmidhi]. Translated by Maulana Fazal Aḥmed and Rafique Abdul Rahman. Vol. 1. Karachi, Pakistan: Darul Ishaat, 2007.Google Scholar

Anjum, Ovamir. “Islam as a Discursive Tradition: Talal Asad and His Interlocutors.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and Middle East 27 3 (2007).Google Scholar

Ansari, Zafar Isḥāq. “Islamic Juristic Terminology before S(h)afi’i: A Semantic Analysis with Special Reference to Kufa.” Arabica 19 3 (1972): 255–300.Google Scholar

Ansari, Zafar Isḥāq. “The Early Development of Islamic Fiqh in Kufah with Special Reference to the Works of Abū Yūsuf and Shaybani.” PhD, McGill University, 1966.Google Scholar

Aristotle, . Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by Robert Bartlett and Susan Collins. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.Google Scholar

Arjomand, Said Aamir. “The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 41 2 (1999): 263–293.Google Scholar

Arjomand, Said Aamir. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar

Arjomand, Said Aamir. The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: Religion, Political Order, and Societal Change in Shiite Iran from the Beginning to 1890. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1984.Google Scholar

Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, and Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.Google Scholar

Asad, Talal. The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam. Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1986.Google Scholar

Auda, Jasser. Maqāṣid Al-Sharı̄ʿa: A Beginner’s Guide. London, UK: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2008.Google Scholar

Awass, Omer. “Fatwa, Discursivity, and the Art of Ethical Embedding.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 87 3 (September 2019): 765–790.Google Scholar

Balogun, Isma’il A. B. “The Life and Work of the Mujaddid of West Africa, ‘Uthmān B. Fūdı̄ Popularly Known as Usumanu Ḍan Fodio.” Islamic Studies 12 4 (1973): 271–292.Google Scholar

Berkey, Jonathan. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar

Berman, Harold J. “Toward an Integrative Jurisprudence: Politics, Morality, History.” California Law Review 76 4 (1988): 779–801.Google Scholar

Bernand, M. “Kiyas.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: Volume V, edited by Bosworth, C. E., Van Donzel, E., Lewis, B. and Pellat, C. H., 238–242. Leiden: Brill, 1986.Google Scholar

Bonney, Richard. Jihad: From Quran to Bin Laden. New York: Palgrave-McMillan, 2004.Google Scholar

Bove, Paul. “Discourse.” In Critical Terms for Literary Study, edited by Lentricchia, Frank and McLaughlin, Thomas, 50. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990.Google Scholar

Bromley, Simon. “‘The State System in the Middle East: Origins, Development, and Prospects’.” Blackwell Reference Online, edited by Youssef M Choueiri. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Accessed April 28, 2009. www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405106818_chunk_g978140510681831.Google Scholar

Burak, Guy. The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar

Chase, Edward. “Law and Theology.” In A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory, edited by Patterson, Dennis. Blackwell Publishing, 1999. Blackwell Reference Online. March 24, 2008.Google Scholar

Cizakca, Murat. A History of Philanthropic Foundations: The Islamic World from the Seventh Century to the Present. Istanbul, Turkey: Bogazici University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

Cizakca, Murat. A Comparative Evolution of Business Partnership. New York: Brill, 1996.Google Scholar

Cohen, Hayyim J. “The Economic Background and the Secular Occupations of Muslim Jurisprudents and Traditionist in the Classical Period of Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 13 1 (1970).Google Scholar

Cook, Michael. Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islam. New York: Cambridge Univesity Press, 2000.Google Scholar

Dan Fodio, ʿUthmān. Mukhtārāt min Mu’allafātʿUthmān Dan Fodio. Samaru: Iqra’ah Publishing House, ND.Google Scholar

Dennet, Daniel. Conversion and Poll Tax in Early Islam. Delhi: Idarah-I Adabyat-I Delli, 1950.Google Scholar

Djait, Hichem. “Al-Kufa.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: Volume V, edited by Bosworth, C. E., Van Donzel, E., Lewis, B. and Pellat, C. H., 345–351. Leiden: Brill, 1986.Google Scholar

Dutton, Yasin. The Origins of Islamic Law: The Quran, the Muwaṭṭa, and Madinan Amal. Surrey, UK: Curzon Press, 1999.Google Scholar

El Masri, Fathi Hasan. A Critical Edition of Dan Fodio’s Bavan wuiub al-hiijra ‘ala l-’ibad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.Google Scholar

El Shamsy, Aḥmed. The Canonization of Islamic Law: A Social and Intellectual History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.Google Scholar

Ennāmı̄, ‘Amr Khalı̄fah. Studies in Ibāḍı̄sm. Musqat: Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs, ND.Google Scholar

Euben, Roxanne. Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.Google Scholar

Feldman, Noah. The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.Google Scholar

Franscesca, Ersilia. “Ibāḍı̄ Law and Jurisprudence.” The Muslim World 105 2 (April 2013): 209–223.Google Scholar

Gilbert, Joan E. “Institutionalization of Muslim Scholarship and Professionalization of the Ulama’ in Medieval Damascus.” Studia Islamica 52 (1980): 105–134.Google Scholar

Gran, Peter. Islamic Roots of Capitalism: Egypt, 1760–1840. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.Google Scholar

Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India: 1556–1707. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1963.Google Scholar

Haidar, Najam. The Origins of the Shi’a: Identity, Ritual, and Sacred Space in Eighth-Century Kufah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “Groundwork of the Moral Law: A New Look at the Quran and the Genesis of Sharı̄ʿa.” Islamic Law and Society 16 3–4 (2009): 239–279.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. Sharı̄ʿa: Theory, Practice, Transformations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “Juristic Authority Vs. State Power: The Legal Crisis of Modern Islam.” Journal of Law and Religion 19 2 (2003–2004): 243–258.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. Authority, Continuity, and Change in Islamic Law. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “From Regional to Personal Schools of Law? A Reevaluation.” Islamic Law and Society 8 1 (2001): 1–26.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadı̄th: A Pseudo-Problem.” Studia Islamica 89 (1999): 75–90.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “From Fatwa to Furu: Growth and Change in Islamic Substantive Law.” Islamic Law and Society 1 1 (1994): 29–65.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “Was al-Shāfiʿı̄ the Master Architect of Islamic Jurisprudence?” International Journal of Middle East 25 4 (1993): 587–605.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “Logic, Formal Arguments and Formalization of Arguments in Sunnı̄ Jurisprudence.” Arabica 37 3 (1990): 315–358.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “The Use and Abuse of Evidence: The Question of Provincial and Roman Influences on Early Islamic Law.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 1 (1990): 79–91.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “Non-Analogical Arguments in Sunnı̄ Juridical Qiyās.” Arabica 36 3 (1989): 286–306.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. “The Development of Logical Structure in Sunnı̄ Legal Theory.” Islam 64 (1987): 42–67.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael. A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunnı̄ Usul al-fiqh. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.Google Scholar

Hasan, Aḥmed. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence: The Command of the Sharı̄ʿa and Juridical Norms. Islamabad, Pakistan: Islamic Research Institute, 1993.Google Scholar

Hasan, Aḥmed. The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamabad, Pakistan: Islamic Research Institute, Islamic University, 1970.Google Scholar

Haykel, Bernard. Revival and Reform of Islam. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar

Hilli, al-Hasan Ibn Yusuf (Al-̔Allāma). Mabadi’ Al-Wusul Fi ‘Ilm Al-Usul, edited by Al-Baqaal, ‘Abdul Al-Hussein Muḥammad Ibn Ali 1404 AH. Tehran: Maktab al-‘Alam al-Islami, 1984 (1404).Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall. Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam and World History. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. Vol. I–III. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1974.Google Scholar

Hoyland, Robert. Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press Inc, 1997.Google Scholar

Humphreys, Stephen. Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry. Minneapolis, MN: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988.Google Scholar

Hunwick, John. Sharia in the Songhai: The Replies of Al-Maghı̄lı̄ to the Questions of Askia Al- Hajj Muhammad. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1985.Google Scholar

Hussin, Iza. The Politics of Islamic Law Local Elites, Colonial Authority, and the Making of the Muslim State. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2016.Google Scholar

Ibn ʿābidı̄n, Muḥammad Ameen. ‘Uqud Rusum Al-Muftı̄. Lahore, Pakistan: Suhail Academy, 1976.Google Scholar

Ibn Anas, Mālik. Kitāb Al- Muwaṭṭa’, edited by Muḥammad Fouad ‘Abdul-Baqi. Vol. 1–2. Beirut, Lebanon: Al-Maktabah Al-Thaqafiah, 1988.Google Scholar

Ibn Anas, Mālik. Al-Muwaṭṭa’ [Kitāb Al- Muwaṭṭa’]. Translated by ‘Aisha Abdul Rahman at Tarjumana Bewley and Ya’cub Johnson. Norwich, UK: Diwān Press, 1982.Google Scholar

Ibn ‘Ashur, Muḥammad Al-Tahir. Treatise on Maqāṣid Al-Sharı̄ʿa. Translated by Mohamed el-Tahir el-Mesawi. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2006.Google Scholar

Ibn Rushd, Abū Waleed Muḥammad Ibn Aḥmad (Al-Jadd). Fatāwa Ibn Rushd, V.2, edited by Mukhtar Ibn Tahir, Al-Talili. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Qarb Al-Islami, 1987.Google Scholar

Ibn Rushd, Muḥammad Ibn Aḥmed. The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer V.2. Translated by Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khān. Reading, UK: Garnet Publishing Limited, 1996.Google Scholar

Ibn Rushd, Muḥammad Ibn Aḥmed. The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer V.1 [Bidayat Al- Mujtahid]. Translated by Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khān. Reading, UK: Garnett Publishing Limited, 1994.Google Scholar

Ibn Taymiyya, Ṭaqı̄ ad-Dı̄n Aḥmad. Muslims under Non-Muslim Rule. Translated by Michot. Beaverton, OR: Yaḥya Interface Publications, 2010.Google Scholar

Ibn Taymiyya, Ṭaqı̄ ad-Dı̄n Aḥmad. Majmu’ Fatāwa Ibn Taymiyya, V.28., edited by Al-Jazar, ‘ Amer and Al-Baz, Anwar. Saudi Arabia: Majma’ al-Mālik Fahd lildiba’ah wa al-Nashr, 2004. www.waqfeya.com/book.php?bid=1747.Google Scholar

Ibn Taymiyya, Ṭaqı̄ ad-Dı̄n Aḥmad. Al-Masa’Il Al-Mardiniyyah, edited by Al-Masri, Khalid ibn Muḥammad Ibn ‘Uthman. Amman, Jordan: Dar Al-Flah, ND.Google Scholar

Ibn Taymiyya, Ṭaqı̄ ad-Dı̄n Aḥmad. Al-Fatāwa Al-Kubra, V.3., edited by ‘Ata, Muḥammad and ‘Ata, Mustafa. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Kutub Al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1987. www.waqfeya.com/book.php?bid=775.Google Scholar

Ihsanoglu, Ekmeleddin. The Islamic World in the New Century: The Organization of the Islamic Conference. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010.Google Scholar

Imber, Colin. Ebu’s-su‘ud. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009.Google Scholar

Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, eds. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar

Islam, Zafarul. “Nature of Landed Property in Mughal India Views of an Eighteenth Century Jurist.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Indian History Congress. 36 (1975): 301–309.Google Scholar

Issawi, Charles. An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1982Google Scholar

Kaptein, Nico. “The Voices of the Ulema: Fatwas and Religious Authority in Indonesia.” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 125 (janvier–mars 2004): 115–130. file:///Users/omerawass/Downloads/assr-1038.pdfGoogle Scholar

Katouzian, Homa. The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo -Modernism iss1926–1979. London, UK: McMillan Press LTD, 1981.Google Scholar

Kearney, Richard. Twentieth-Century Philosophy. Routledge History of Philosophy, edited by Kearney, Richard. Vol. VIII. London, UK: Routledge, 1994.Google Scholar

Keddie, Nikki R. Roots of Evolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. Binghamton, NY: Yale University Press, 1981.Google Scholar

Khān, Qāḍı̄. Al-Fatāwa Al-Hindiyya, V.1. (Printed on margins of Al-Fatāwa Al-Hindiyyah by Shaikh Nizam). Second Edition. Al-Bulaq, Egypt: Dar Al-Sader, 1310 AH.Google Scholar

Khin, Mustafa Saʿı̄d. Āthār Al-‘Ikhtilaf Fi Al-Qawa’Id Al-Usuliah fi ‘Ikhtilaf Al-Fuqhha’. Beirut, Lebanon: Mu’asasat al-Risālah, 1998.Google Scholar

Krygier, Martin. “Law as Tradition.” Law and Philosophy 5 2 (1986): 237–262.Google Scholar

Lambton, Ann. Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue in Persia. London, UK: Oxford University Press, 1953.Google Scholar

Lane, Edward William and Lane-Poole, Stanley The Arabic–English Lexicon. Beirut, Lebanon: Librairie du Liban, 1968.Google Scholar

Laoust, Henri. “Ibn Taymiyya.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: Volume III, edited by Lewis, B., Menage, V. L., Pellat, C. H. and Schacht, J., 951–955. Leiden: Brill, 1986.Google Scholar

Lapidus, Ira. A History of Islamic Societies. Second Edition. New York, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.Google Scholar

Lapidus, Ira. “State and Religion in Islamic Society.” Past and Present 151 (1996): 3–27.Google Scholar

Lapidus, Ira. “The Evolution of Muslim Urban Society.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 15 1 (1973): 21–50.Google Scholar

Last, Murray. The Sokoto Caliphate. London, UK: Longmans, Green, and CO LTD, 1967.Google Scholar

Layish, Aharon. “The Transformation of the Sharı̄ʿa from Jurists’ Law to Statutory Law in the Contemporary Muslim World.” Die Welt Des Islams, New Series 44 1 (2004): 85–113.Google Scholar

Lowry, Joseph. “Does Shāfiʿı̄ Have a Theory of ‘Four Sources’ of Law?” In Studies in Islamic Legal Theory, edited by Weiss, Bernard, 23–50. Leiden: Brill, 2002.Google Scholar

Luxemburg, Rosa. The Accumulation of Capital. Tr. Agnes Schwarzschild. London, UK: Routledge, 2003.Google Scholar

Mackintosh-Smith, Tim. Arabs: A 3000 Year History of Peoples, Tribes, and Empires. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019.Google Scholar

Madelung, Wilfred. “Zaydiyya.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: New Edition (Ei2), edited by Bianquis, Th., Bosworth, C. E., Vandonzel, E., Heinrichs, W. P. and Bearman, P. J., Vol. XI, 477–481. Leiden: Brill, 2002.Google Scholar

Madison, Gary B. “Hermeneutics.” In Routledge History of Philosophy: The Twentieth Century – Continental Philosophy, edited by Kearney, Richard, 240–288. New York, NY: Routledge, 1994.Google Scholar

Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.Google Scholar

Mailloux, Steven. “Interpretation.” In Critical Terms for Literary Study, edited by Lentricchia, and McLaughlin, , 121–134. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 1990.Google Scholar

Mandaville, Jon E. “Usurious Piety: The Cash Waqf Controversy in the Ottoman Empire.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 3 (1979): 289–308.Google Scholar

McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997.Google Scholar

Melchert, Christopher. The Formation of Sunnı̄ Schools of Law, 9th–10th Centuries CE. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1997.Google Scholar

Metcalf, Barbara D. and Metcalf, Thomas R.. A Concise History of Modern India. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2006.Google Scholar

Miller, Ruth. Legislating Authority: Sin and Crime in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. New York, NY: Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar

Mitchell, Timothy. Colonizing Egypt. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1988.Google Scholar

Moosvi, Shireen. “Zamindar.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: New Edition (EI2), edited by Bianquis, Th., Bosworth, C. E., Vandonzel, E., Heinrich, W. P. and Bearman, P. J., 438–439. Leiden, NL: Brill, 2002.Google Scholar

Motzki, Harald. Analyzing Muslim Traditions: Studies in Legal, Exegetical and Maghazi Ḥadı̄th. Leiden, NT: Brill, 2010.Google Scholar

Motzki, Harald. The Origins of Islamic Jurisprudence: Meccan Fiqh before the Classical Schools. Leiden, NL: Brill, 2002.Google Scholar

Moussavi, Ahmad. “The Theory of Vilayat-i Faqih: Its Origins and Its Appearance in Shiite Juristic Literature.” In State Politics and Islamby Mumtaz Ahmad. Indianapolis, IN: American Trust Publications, 1986.Google Scholar

Mu‘ammar, ‘Ali Yaḥyā. Al-Ibāḍiyya fı̄ Mawkib al-Tārı̄kh. Al-Seeb, Oman: Maktabat al-Ḍāmirı̄ li’l-Nashr wa al-Tawzı̄‘, 2008.Google Scholar

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Dabashi, Hamid, and Vali Reza, SeyyedNasr, , eds. Expectations of the Millenium: Shi’ism in History. Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1989.Google Scholar

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Dabashi, Hamid, and Vali Reza, SeyyedNasr, , eds. Shi’ism: Doctrines, Thought and Spirituality. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989.Google Scholar

Newman, A. J. “Safawids: Religious Trends.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: Volume 8, edited by Bosworth, C. E., Van Donzel, E., Heinrichs, W. P. and Lecomte, G., 777–781. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1995.Google Scholar

Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khan. Theories of Islamic Law: The Methodology of Ijtihād. Islamabad, Pakistan: Islamic Research Institute, 1994.Google Scholar

Ozcan, Tahsin. “Ibn Kemal’in Para Vakiflarina Dair Risalesi.” Islam Arastirmalan Dergisi 1 4 (2000): 31–41.Google Scholar

Quateart, Donald. The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914. Pt. 4 of an Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, edited by Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1994.Google Scholar

Quick, ‘ Abdullah Hakim. “Aspects of Islamic Social Intellectual History in Hausaland: Uthman Ibn Fudi, 1774–1804 C.E.” University of Toronto: Dissertation, 1995.Google Scholar

Ra’ana, Irfan Mahmud. Economic System UnderʿUmar the Great: A Treatise on Muslim Economy in the Early Seventh Century. Lahore, Pakistan: Sh. Muḥammad Ashraf, 1991.Google Scholar

Radin, Max. “Tradition.” In Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by Seligman, Edwin R. A. and Johnson, Alvin, Vol. 15, 62–67. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company, 1963.Google Scholar

Rafsanjani, Mohammad. Interview. Tehran: Cancer Research, Treatment, and Training Institute, January 1, 2017.Google Scholar

Riḍā, Rashı̄d. Al-Ribā wa al-Mu‘āmalāt fı̄ al-Islām. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat Al-Qahirah, 1960.Google Scholar

Riyāḍ, Muḥammad. Usul Al-Fatwa Wa Al-Qadha’ Fi Al-Madhab Al-Mālikı̄. Casablanca, Morocco: Dar al Bayda, 1996.Google Scholar

Rizvi, Sayid Athar Abbas. Shah Abdul Aziz: Puristanism, Secterian, Polemics, and Jihad. Canberra, AU: Marifat Publishing House, 1982.Google Scholar

Sadeghi, Behnam. The Logic of Law Making in Islam: Women and Prayer in the Legal Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.Google Scholar

Salaymeh, Lena. The Beginnings of Islamic Law: Late Antiquity Islamicate Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Google Scholar

Salaymeh, Lena. The Oral and Written in Early Islam. Translated by Vagelpohl, Uwe, edited by Montgomery, James. New York, NY: Routledge, 2006.Google Scholar

Schulze, Reinhard. A Modern History of the Islamic World. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2000.Google Scholar

Shareef, Muhammad. “The Life of Shaykh Dan Tafa.” Sankore Institute of Islamic African Studies. ND.Google Scholar

Shatzmiller, Maya. “Economic Performance and Economic Growth in the Early Islamic World.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of Orient 54 (2011): 132–184.Google Scholar

SidAḥmed, Abdel Salam and Ehteshami, Anoushirvan, eds. Islamic Fundamentalism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996.Google Scholar

Skovgaard-Petersen, Jakob. Defining Islam for the Egyptian State: Muftı̄s and Fatwas of the Dār al-Iftā. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1997.Google Scholar

Sonn, Tamara. Islam: A Brief History. Second Edition. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.Google Scholar

Stewart, Devin J. Islamic Legal Orthodoxy: Twelver Shı̄ʿı̄ Responses to the Sunnı̄ Legal System. Salt Lake City Utah: The University of Utah Press, 1998.Google Scholar

Stodolsky, V. Y. A New Historical Model and Periodization for the Perception of the Sunnah of the Prophet and his Companions. Doctoral Thesis. Chicago, IL: Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago, 2012.Google Scholar

Tucker, Judith. In the House of the Law Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria and Palestine. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998.Google Scholar

Vaglieri, Veccia. “Ibn ʿAbbās.” In The Encyclopedia of Islam: Volume V, edited by Gibb, H. A. R., Kramers, J. H., Levi-Provencal, E. and Schacht, J., 40–41. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1986.Google Scholar

Vikor, Knut S. Between God and Sultan: A History of Islamic Law. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar

Voll, John Obert. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982.Google Scholar

Waines, David. “Islam.” In Linda Woodhead’s Religion in the Modern World. First Edition, edited by Linda, Woodhead, 182–202. New York, NY: Routledge, 2002.Google Scholar

Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World System III: The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy 1730–1840. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011.Google Scholar

Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, edited by Guenther, Roth and Wittich, Claus. Vol. 1–2. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978.Google Scholar

Wheeler, Brannon. Applying the Canon of Islam: The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Ḥanafı̄ Scholarship. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996.Google Scholar

Wilkinson, John. Ibadism: Origins and Early Development in Oman. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010.Google Scholar

Wink, Andre. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. II: The Slaving Kings and the Islamic Conquests:11th–13th Centuries. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1991.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muḥammad Qasim. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age: Religious Authority and Internal Criticism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muḥammad Qasim. “The Caliphs, the Ulama, and the Law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early ʿAbbāsid Period.” Islamic Law and Society 4 1 (1997): 1–36.Google Scholar

Zysow, Aron. The Economy of Certainty: An Introduction to the Typology of Islamic Legal Theory. Doctoral Thesis. Boston, MA: Department of Near Eastern Studies, Harvard University, 1984.Google Scholar