Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-22dnz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T21:34:30.693Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Childhood sexual abuse and pubertal timing: implications for long-term psychosocial adjustment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 September 2009

Tanya A. Bergevin
Affiliation:
Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University
William M. Bukowski
Affiliation:
Professor, Department of Psychology and Centre for Research in Human Development Principal Loyola International College, Concordia University
Chris Hayward
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Get access

Summary

Although puberty is a normative event that is experienced by virtually every adolescent, the experience of puberty varies widely across individuals. As other chapters in this volume clearly show, puberty varies according to several basic dimensions, including when it happens, how quickly it happens, and so on. In this chapter we consider variations in pubertal timing as a function of a prior form of experience, specifically that of sexual abuse. Our goals are as follows: first, to introduce the topic of sexual abuse and to explore how sexually abusive experiences predict early pubertal timing; second, using an integrated bio-psycho-social perspective, to discuss how early entry into puberty may, especially for girls, exacerbate the effects of sexual abuse and increase the risk of adverse outcomes in postpubescence; and finally, we present preliminary evidence linking childhood sexual victimization, pubertal timing, and adolescent maladjustment within intra- and interpersonal domains.

What is sexual abuse?

The topic of sexual abuse has not been without its social and scientific controversies. Regarded as a relatively rare and innocuous event a half-century ago, the sexual abuse of children has reached the forefront of our collective awareness as a social problem of considerable proportion (Pilkington and Kremer, 1995). The first epidemiological studies of child sexual abuse (CSA) began in the 1920s; and research has long suggested that experiences of sexual victimization negatively impact a substantial number of children (Hamilton, 1929; Kinsey, et al., 1953; Landis, et al., 1940).

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abney, V. D., and Priest, R. (1995). African American and sexual child abuse. In L. Fontes (ed.), Sexual abuse in nine North American cultures (pp. 11–30). Thousand Oaks, CA: SageCrossRef
Adams, J. F. (1981). Earlier menarche, greater height and weight: a stimulation-stress factor hypothesis. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 104, 3–22Google ScholarPubMed
Alsaker, F. D. (1992). Timing of puberty and reactions to pubertal changes. In M. Rutter (ed.), Psychosocial disturbances in young people: challenges for prevention (pp. 39–82). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Alsaker, F. D. (1995). Pubertal timing, overweight and psychological adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 396–419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, P. C., and Lupfer, S. L. (1987). Family characteristics and long-term consequences associated with sexual abuse. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 16, 235–245CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Humane Association. (1993). Child abuse and neglect data fact sheet. 1. Englewood, CO: American Humane Association
Banyard, V. L. (1997). The impact of childhood sexual abuse and family functioning on four dimensions of women's later parenting. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21(11), 1095–1107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker-Lausen, E., and Rickel, A. U. (1995). Integration of teen pregnancy and child abuse research: identifying mediator variables for pregnancy outcome. Journal of Primary Prevention, 16(1), 39–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., daCosta, G. A., Akman, D., and Cassavia, E. (1992). A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(1), 101–118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., and Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: an evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62, 647–670CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergevin, T., and Bukowski, W. M. (2002). Rejection sensitivity: a systems approach to understanding adolescent romantic development. Unpublished manuscript, Concordia University, Montreal, CA.
Bukowski, W. M. (1992). Sexual abuse and maladjustment considered from the perspective of normal developmental processes. In W. O'Donohue and J. H. Geer (ed.), The sexual abuse of children: theory and research (vol. II, pp. 261–282). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Burke-Draucker, C. (1996). Family-of-origin variables and adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse: a review of the research. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 5(4), 35–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, B. C., and Udry, J. R. (1995). Stress and the age of menarche of mothers and daughters. Journal of Biosocial Science, 27, 127–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., and Moffitt, T. E. (1991). Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change: the sample case of girls at puberty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1), 157–168CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Woolger, C., Power, T. G., and Smith, K. D. (1992). Parenting difficulties among adult survivors of father–daughter incest. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(2), 239–249CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowder, A. (1995). Opening the door: a treatment model for therapy with male survivors of sexual abuse. New York: Brunner-Mazel
Dallam, S. J., Gleaves, D. H., Cepeda-Benito, A., Silberg, J. L., Kraemer, H. C., and Spiegel, D. (2001). The effects of child sexual abuse: comment on Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998). Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 715–733CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, J. L., and Petretic-Jackson, P. A. (2000). The impact of childhood sexual abuse on adult interpersonal functioning: a review and synthesis of the empirical literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5(3), 291–328CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demause, L. (1997). The history of child abuse. Journal of Psychohistory, 25(3), 216–236Google ScholarPubMed
Dhaliwal, G. K., Gauzas, L., Antonowicz, D. H., and Ross, R. R. (1996). Adult male survivors of childhood sexual abuse: prevalence, sexual abuse characteristics, and long-term effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 16, 619–639CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dick, D. M., Rose, R. J., Viken, R. J., and Kaprio, J. (2000). Pubertal timing and substance use: association between and within families across late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 180–189CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiTomasso, M., and Routh, D. (1993). Recall of abuse in childhood and three measures of dissociation. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(4), 477–485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubas, J. S., Garber, J. A., and Pedersen, A. C. (1991). A longitudinal investigation of adolescents' changing perceptions of pubertal timing. Developmental Psychology, 27, 580–586CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, C. T. (1991). An extension of the Steinberg accelerating hypothesis. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 221–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., and Garber, J. (2000). Psychological antecedents of variation in girls' pubertal timing: maternal depression, stepfather presence, and marital and family stress. Child Development, 71(2), 485–501CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Mcfadyen-Ketchum, S., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., and Bates, J. E. (1999). Quality of early family relationships and individual differences in the timing of pubertal maturation in girls: a longitudinal test of an evolutionary model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 387–401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T. (1990). Human ovarian functioning and reproductive ecology: new hypotheses. American Anthropologist, 92, 933–952CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faller, K. C. (1989). Characteristics of a clinical sample of sexually abused children: how boy and girl victims differ. Child Abuse and Neglect, 13(2), 281–291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farley, M., and Keaney, J. C. (1997). Physical symptoms, somatization, and dissociation in women survivors of childhood sexual assault. Women and Health, 25(30), 33–45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized children. New York: Free Press
Finkelhor, D. (1990). Early and long term-effects of child sexual abuse: an update. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21, 325–330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkelhor, D., and Browne, A. (1985). The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse: a conceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55, 530–541CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkelhor, D., Hotaling, G., Lewis, I. A., and Smith, C. (1990). Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14(1), 19–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fry, R. (1993). Adult physical illness and childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37, 89–103CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., and Elder, G. H. (1996). Coming of age too early: pubertal influences on girls' vulnerability to psychological distress. Child Development, 67, 3386–3400CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graber, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., and Warren, M. P. (1995). The antecedents of menarcheal age: heredity, family environment, and stressful life events. Child Development, 66, 346–359CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graber, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(12), 1768–1776CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, G. V. (1929). A research in marriage. New York: Albert and Charles Boni
Hayward, C., Killen, J. D., Wilson, D. M., Hammer, L. D., Litt, I. F., Kraemer, H. C., Haydel, F., Varady, A., and Barr, Taylor C. (1997). Psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(2), 255–262Google ScholarPubMed
Herman-Giddens, M. E., Sandler, A. D., and Friedman, N. E. (1988). Sexual precocity in girls: an association with sexual abuse?American Journal of Diseases of Children, 142, 431–433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, G. R., Offen, L., and Waller, G. (1997). See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil: why do relatively few male victims of childhood sexual abuse receive help for abuse-related issues in adulthood?Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 69–88CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoogland, J. L. (1982). Prairie dogs avoid extreme inbreeding. Science, 215, 1639–1641CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulanicka, B. (1999). Acceleration of menarcheal age of girls from dysfunctional families. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17, 119–132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jumper, S. A. (1995). A meta-analysis of the relationship of child sexual abuse to adult psychological adjustment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(6), 715–728CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanazawa, S. (2001). Why father absence might precipitate early menarche: the role of polygyny. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 329–334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., and Finkelhor, D. (1993). The impact of sexual abuse on children: a review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113 (1), 164–180CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., and Finkelhor, D. (2001). The impact of sexual abuse on children: a review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. In R. Bull (ed.), Children and the law: the essential readings. Essential readings in developmental psychology (pp. 31–76). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific
Kenny, M. C., and McEachern, A. G. (2000). Racial, ethnic, and cultural factors of childhood sexual abuse: a selected review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(7), 905–922CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, K., and Smith, P. K. (1998a). Childhood stress, behavioral symptoms and mother–daughter pubertal development. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 231–240CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, K., and Smith, P. K. (1998b). Retrospective survey of parental marital relations and child reproductive development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22(4), 729–751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, K., and Smith, P. K. (1999). Family relations in early childhood and reproductive development. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17(2), 133–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. F., Martin, C. E., and Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia, PN: W. B. Saunders
Kluft, R. P. (1990). Incest and subsequent revictimization: the case of therapist–patient sexual exploitation, with a description of the sitting duck syndrome. In R. P. Kluft (ed.), Incest-related syndromes of adult psychopathology (pp. 263–287). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press
Koss, M. P., and Dinero, T. E. (1989). Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimization among a sample of college women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 242–250CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landis, C., Landis, A. T., Bolles, M. M., Metzger, H. F., Pitts, M. W., D'Esopo, D. A., Moloy, H. C., Kleegman, S. J., and Dickenson, R. L. (1940). Sex in development. New York: Paul B. Hoebert
Leek, M. M. (1991). Genetic narcissism in the family unit: Genetic similarity theory as an extension of Hamilton's rule into the human domain. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Sheffield, UK.
Lidicker, W. Z. (1980). The social biology of the California vole. Biologist, 62, 46–55Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1991). Different reproductive strategies in males and females. Child Development, 62, 676–681CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malo, J., and Tremblay, R. E. (1997). The impact of paternal alcoholism and maternal social position on boys' school adjustment, pubertal maturation and sexual behavior: a test of two competing hypotheses. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(2), 187–197CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendel, M. P. (1995). The male survivor: the impact of sexual abuse. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Messman, T. L., and Long, P. J. (1996). Child sexual abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: a review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 397–420CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Belsky, J., and Silva, P. A. (1992). Childhood experience and the onset of menarche: a test of a sociobiological model. Child Development, 63, 47–58CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, J. E. B., Diedrich, S., Lee, D., Fincher, K. M., and Stern, R. (1999). Professional writing on child sexual abuse from 1900 to 1975: dominant themes and impact on prosecution. Child Maltreatment, 4, 201–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, M. R., Hulsey, T. L., Sexton, M. C., Harralson, T. L., and Lambert, W. (1993). Long-term sequelae of childhood sexual abuse: perceived family environment, psychopathology, and dissociation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 276–283CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumann, D. A., Houskamp, B. M., Pollock, V. E., and Briere, J. (1996). The long-term sequelae of childhood sexual abuse in women: a meta-analytic review. Child Maltreatment, 1, 6–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newberger, E. H., Hampton, R. L., Marx, T. J., and White, K. M. (1986). Child abuse and pediatric social illness: an epidemiological analysis and ecological reformulation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56(4), 589–601CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oddone-Paolucci, E., Genius, M. L., and Violato, C. (2001). A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of child sexual abuse. Journal of Psychology, 135(1), 17–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsson, I. A. S., Jonge, F. H., Schuurman, T., and Helmond, F. A. (1999). Poor rearing conditions and social stress in pigs. Behavioural Processes, 46, 201–215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ondersma, S. J., Chaffin, M., Berliner, L., Cordon, I., Goodman, G. S., and Barnett, D. (2001). Sex with children is abuse: comment on Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998). Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 707–714CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, A. C., and Crockett, L. J. (1985). Pubertal timing and grade effects on adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 191–206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L. J., Richards, M., and Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 247–271CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pilkington, B., and Kremer, J. (1995). A review of the epidemiological research on child sexual abuse. Child Abuse Review, 4, 84–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polusny, M. A., and Follette, V. M. (1995). Long-term correlates of child sexual abuse: theory and review of the empirical literature. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 4, 143–166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1991). The use of the Center for Epidemiological Studies depression scale in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 149–166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rind, B., and Tromovitch, P. (1997). A meta-analytic review of findings from national samples on psychological correlates of child sexual abuse. Journal of Sex Research, 34(3), 237–255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., and Bauserman, R. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 22–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., and Bauserman, R. (2001). The validity and appropriateness of methods: analyses and conclusions in Rind et al. (1998). A rebuttal of victimological critique from Ondersma et al. (2001) and Dallam et al. (2001). Psychological Bulletin, 127(6), 734–758CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romano, E., and Luca, R. V. (2001). Male sexual abuse: a review of effects, abuse characteristics, and links with later psychological functioning. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 55–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, D. E. (1986). The secret trauma: incest in the lives of girls and women. New York: Basic Books
Salter, A. C. (1992). Epidemiology of child sexual abuse. In W. O'Donohue and J. H. Geer (ed.), The sexual abuse of children: theory and research (vol. I, pp. 108–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Stattin, H., and Magnusson, D. (1990). Pubertal maturation in female development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Stevenson, M. R., and Gajarsky, W. M. (1991). Unwanted childhood sexual experiences relate to later revictimization and male perpetration. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 4(4), 57–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., and Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surbey, M. K. (1990). Family composition, stress, and the timing of human menarche. In T. E. Ziegler and F. B. Bercovitch (ed.), Monographes in primatology, socioendocrinology of primate reproduction (vol. XIII, pp. 11–32). New York: John Wiley–Liss
Surbey, M. K. (1998). Parent and offspring strategies in the transition at adolescence. Human Nature, 9, 67–94CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanner, M. J. (1990). Foetus into man: physical growth from conception to maturity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Trickett, P. K., and Putnam, F. W. (1993). Impact of child sexual abuse on females: toward a developmental, psychobiological integration. Psychological Science, 4(2), 81–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tschann, J. M., Adler, N. E., Irwin, C. E., Millstein, S. G., Turner, R. A., and Kegeles, S. M. (1994). Initiation of substance use in early adolescence: the roles of pubertal timing and emotional distress. Health Psychology, 13(4), 326–333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, P. K., Runtz, M. G., and Galambos, N. L. (1999). Sexual abuse, pubertal timing, and subjective age in adolescent girls: a research note. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17(2), 111–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Udry, J. R., and Cliquet, R. L. (1982). A cross-cultural examination of the relationship between ages at menarche, marriage, and first birth. Demography, 19, 53–63CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Department of Health and Human Services National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (1996). The national incidence study of child abuse and neglect (NIS-3). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office
US Department of Health and Human Services National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (1997). Child maltreatment 1995: reports from the states to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office
Violato, C., and Genius, M. (1993). Problems of research in male child sexual abuse: a review. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 2(3), 33–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, C. A., MacMillan, H. L., Trocme, N., Boyle, M., Jamieson, E., and Daciuk, J. (2000). The childhood experiences of violence questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, McMaster University, Toronto, CA.
Watkins, B., and Bentovim, A. (1992). The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents: a review of current research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(1), 197–248CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weirson, M., Long, P. J., and Forehand, R. L. (1993). Toward a new understanding of early menarche: the role of environmental stress in pubertal timing. Adolescence, 28(112), 913–924Google Scholar
Whipple, E. E., and Webster-Stratton, C. (1991). The role of parental stress in physically abusive families. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 279–291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J. M., and Dunlop, L. C. (1999). Pubertal timing and self-reported delinquency among male adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 157–171CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wyatt, G. E., Guthrie, D., and Notgrass, C. M. (1992). Differential effects of women's child sexual abuse and subsequent sexual revictimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 167–173CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuravin, S. J., and DiBlasio, F. A. (1992). Child-neglecting adolescent mothers: how do they differ from their non-maltreating counterparts?Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7(4), 471–489CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×