Introduction

Nineteenth-century Japan confronted many issues. In addition to the threats posed by the frequent appearance of foreign ships, the Edo shogunate political system was tottering. A variety of thinkers appeared on the scene to face these challenges. Well-versed in Confucianism, they were faced with the onslaught of the West and had to rethink how Japan’s culture, politics and character as a nation should respond to its impact. The search for ways to preserve the nation became their top priority. Sakuma Shōzan was one of those thinkers.

Sakuma Shōzan (1811–1864) was a samurai from the Matsushiro domain in Shinano province. He proposed that Japan respond to the West by combining Eastern morality with Western technology (東洋道徳西洋学芸 tōyō dōtoku, seiyō gakugei). He was one of the thinkers who argued that to preserve the nation, Japan should import Western science and technology and add it to a solid foundation of Eastern learning. Yoshida Shōin, Katsu Kaishū, Sakamoto Ryōma and other statesmen active during the Bakamatsu era belonged to his school. Some disciples of his who were active following the Meiji Restoration included Katō Hiroyuki and Nishimura Shigeki. It has been said of Sakuma Shōzan that he developed the most powerful model for modern Japan’s response to European civilization1 and that he was one of those who devised Japan’s basic strategy for the new era.

Previous researchers on Sakuma Shōzan’s political thought have addressed it in hindsight, drawing out elements that played a part in the production of modern Japan. Their research evaluates the influence of his reception of Western learning on his political thinking, focusing on the transformations in his perspective as he studied Western art and moved from “one nation” (一国 ikkoku) via “all under Heaven” (天下 tenka) to his “five worlds” (五 世界 gosekai). However, while his advocacy of the introduction of weaponry and advanced thinking from the West has been depicted as grounded in his knowledge of Western learning, its roots in the Confucian classics have been overlooked. The use of Confucian logic in his political statements has been overlooked in previous research that draws only on “modern” aspects of his thought or treats that logic merely as a limitation on his thinking.