Introduction

Social harm perspectives note that capitalist political economy has harmful consequences (Tombs and Hillyard, 2004; Pemberton, 2016; Scott, 2017). In particular, neoliberal capitalism creates intentional and unintentional harms on a far more problematic basis than other forms of capitalism (Pemberton, 2016). In line with social harm's consideration of structural and systemic factors, this chapter explores the emergence of neoliberalism as the dominant form of political economy. Current labour market conditions did not occur in a vacuum; they reflect a long-standing and systematic ‘restoration’ (Harvey, 2005; Badiou, 2009) of liberal financial capitalism, updated for our global age. The chapter will discuss the deep structural transformation undertaken as part of the neoliberal project and the emergence of a number of absences, notably the absence of job security within ‘flexible’ labour markets. This will provide the context for a thoroughgoing investigation of the service economy. If the expanded definition of violence outlined in Chapter One removes intentionality while retaining focus on negative consequences and harm, this chapter will explore social transformation at the level of depth structures. These changes characterise contemporary labour markets and the service economy in particular but also reflect a number of crucial absences that cumulatively create a culture of negativity. These absences constitute a set of harmful conditions; the exacerbation of inequality, the negative motivation to inflict harm through systemic violence and the positive motivation to inflict harm on others.

Shackling the ‘animal spirits’

Capitalism did not emerge fully formed with the Industrial Revolution and large-scale manufacturing during the 19th century (Arrighi, 2010). In fact, capitalist social relations had steadily materialised over centuries with social forces systematically pulled into the orbit of market relations and the generative core of what would emerge as a capitalist system of political economy (Whitehead and Hall, forthcoming). A historical process of pseudo-pacification (Hall, 2012a) sublimated competitive, aggressive and violent tendencies and channelled such energy into capitalist social relations; markets and trade operate more effectively without the threat of violence. A night-watchman state functioned primarily to enforce laws and suppress discontent on the street but lacked the remit to interfere in the marketplace. The rationality of actors guided by the invisible hand would take care of business, not the state (Smith, 2003 [1776]).