Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-20T00:00:48.602Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
This chapter is part of a book that is no longer available to purchase from Cambridge Core

1 - Systems, science, and populations: Effective early mental health intervention following mass trauma: the roles of government, clinicians, and communities

By
Beverley Raphael
Edited by
Michael Blumenfield  and
Robert J. Ursano
Michael Blumenfield
Affiliation:
New York Medical College
Robert J. Ursano
Affiliation:
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Maryland
Get access

Summary

Introduction

This paper discusses three main themes that need to be addressed for effective early intervention.

The first is the examination, through a systems analysis, of the factors that may impact on mental health through formal and informal organizational activity and behaviors, in the prevention, preparation, response, and recovery to disasters and terrorism.

These systems may be vehicles to support positive mental health outcomes, or may contribute to vulnerability; the identification and mobilization of these are critical for early intervention and more specifically for good mental health outcomes. Such factors may far outweigh the efforts of individual clinicians and specialist mental health programs, despite their valuable contributions overall.

The second is a more thorough examination of the science of early intervention, its conceptualization and current scientific underpinnings and rationale, and the necessary components of an effective early intervention strategy to inform the mental health response to mass emergencies.

Thirdly, it will draw together these elements in a template for the delivery of “early intervention.” This review will highlight the significant further work that is needed to both build the scientific base and to translate it into real world policy and services for affected populations. This requires government and organizational support to lead to the delivery of effective early intervention across the range of potential disaster and terrorism scenarios.

Systems and early intervention

There is a growing interest in systems and complex systems – systems in fields as diverse as molecular biology, information systems, emergency and the military organizations, health care systems, and many others.

Type
Chapter
Information
Intervention and Resilience after Mass Trauma , pp. 1 - 48
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, A. (2005) Research initiatives with US Military Personnel returning from combat. Presentation to the Third Consensus Conference of the Australian Mental Health Disaster Response Committee and Taskforce, Sydney, Australia.
Alexander, D. (2000) Debriefing and body recovery: police in a civilian disaster (pp. 118–130). In: Raphael, B., Wilson, J. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
,American Psychiatric Association (2004) Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
,Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health (2007) Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Adults with Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress DisorderMelbourne: ACPMH.
Bankoff, G. (2003) Vulnerability as a measure of change in society. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 21 (2), 5–30.Google Scholar
Bar-Yam, Y. (2006) Improving the effectiveness of health care and public health: a multiscale complex systems analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 96 (3), 459–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, C. (2006) Should culture considerations influence early intervention? Conference Paper: The Sidney E. Frank Conference on Early Psychological Intervention Following Mass Trauma: Present and Future Directions. New York Medical College, June 13, 2006.
Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Kuhn, E., Broderick, J. (2004) Early intervention for psychological consequences of personal injury motor vehicle accidents (pp. 284–300). In: Litz, B. T. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Bonnano, G. (2004) Loss, trauma, and human resilience. American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, R. A. (2004). Acute stress disorder: course, epidemiology, assessment, and treatment (2, pp. 15–33) In: Litz, B. T. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Bryant, R., and Litz, B. (2006) Intermediate interventions (pp. 155–173). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M., Guthrie, R. (2000) Acute stress disorder scale: a self-report measure of acute stress disorder. Psychological Assessment, 12, 61–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. A., Nixon, R. (2003) Cognitive behaviour therapy of acute stress disorder: a four-year follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 489–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castro, C. A., Engel, C., Adler, A. (2004) The challenge of providing mental health intervention and early intervention in the U.S. Military (pp. 301–318). In: Litz, B. T. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Chemtob, C. M. (2000) Delayed debriefing: after a disaster. In: Wilson, J. P., Raphael, B. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence (pp. 227–240). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, J. A. (2004) Early mental health interventions for trauma and traumatic loss in children and adolescents. In: Litz, B. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Knudsen, K. (2004) Treating childhood traumatic grief: a pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43 (10), 1225–1233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J., Mannarino, P., Gibson, L., Cozza, S., Brymer, M., Murray, L. (2006) Interventions for children and adolescents following disasters (pp. 227–256). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
,Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care (2000) National Action Plan for Promotion, Prevention and Early Intervention for Mental Health. Canberra: Mental Health and Special Programs Branch, Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care.
,Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Complex Systems Science Website: Retrieved May 11, 2006 from http://www.dar.csiro.au/css/.
,DART Center for Journalism and Trauma. Retrieved January 3, 2008, from http://www.dartcenter.org/
Eisenman, D. P., Weine, S. M., Green, B. L.et al. (2006) The ISTSS/Rand guidelines on mental health training of primary healthcare providers for trauma-exposed populations in conflict-affected countries. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19 (1), 5–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, C. A., Foy, D. W., Larson, L. C. (2004) When the helpers need help: early intervention for emergency and relief services personnel (12, pp. 241–262). In Litz, B. T. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Everly, G. S., Mitchell, J. T. (1999) Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): A New Era and Standard of Care in Crisis Intervention. Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing.
Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J. (eds.) (2000) Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guilford Press.
Gagin, R., Cohen, M., Peled-Avram, M. (2005) Family support and victim identification in mass casualty terrorist attacks: an integrative approach. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 7, 125–132.Google Scholar
Goenjian, A. K., Karayan, I., Pynoos, R. S.et al. (1997) Outcome of psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 536–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, M. J., Wilner, N., Alvarez, W. (1979) Impact of event scale: a measure of subjective distress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawachi, I., Subramanian, S. V. (2006) Measuring and modeling the social and geographic context of trauma: a multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19 (2), 195–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L.et al. (2002) Short screening scales to monitor population prevalence and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 32, 959–976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, D., King, L., McArdle, J. J., Grimm, K. J., Jones, R. T., Ollendick, T. H. (2006) Characterizing time in longitudinal trauma research. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 205–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, D. W., Vogt, D. S., King, L. A. (2004) Risk and resilience factors, in the etiology of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (3, pp. 34–64). In: Litz, B. T. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Lieberman, A. F., Horn, P. (2004) Assessment and treatment of young children exposed to traumatic events. In: Osofsky, J. D. (ed.) Young Children and Trauma: Intervention and Treatment (pp. 111–138). New York: Guilford Press.
Litz, B. T. (ed.) (2004) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Vincent, L. (2003) The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 168 (10), 1245–1251.Google Scholar
Mayou, R., Tyndel, S., Bryant, B. (1997) Long-term outcome of motor vehicle accident injury. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 578–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarroll, J., Ursano, R. (2006) Consultation to groups, organizations and communities (pp. 193–203). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M., (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
McDermott, B. M., Lee, E., Judd, M., Gibbon, P. (2005) Post traumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50 (3), 137–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarlane, A. C. (1987) Post traumatic phenomena in a longitudinal study of children following a natural disaster. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 764–769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGorry, P. D., Yung, A. R. (2003) Early intervention in psychosis: an overdue reform. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 393–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGorry, P. D., Yung, A. R., Phillips, L. J.et al. (2002) Randomized controlled trial of interventions designed to reduce the risk of progression to first-episode psychosis in a clinical sample with subthreshold symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 921–927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. A., Ehlers, A. (2003) Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(2), 45–79.Google Scholar
Miller, G. (2005) The tsunami's psychological aftermath. Science, 309 (5737), 1030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, J. T., Everly, G. S. (1993) Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: An Operations Manual for the Prevention of Traumatic Stress Among Emergency Services and Disaster Workers . Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing.
Mitchell, J. T., Everly, G. S. (2000) Critical incident stress management and critical incident stress debriefings: evolutions, effects and outcomes (pp. 71–90). In: Raphael, B., Wilson, J. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mowll, J. (2005) Viewing the body: families after disaster. Presentation to the Second National Consensus Conference: Mental Health Response to Terrorism and Disasters, Sydney, New South Wales.
Mrazek, P. J., Haggerty, R. J. (eds.) (1994) Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
,National Child Traumatic Stress Network & National Centre for PTSD, Psychological First Aid (2005) Field Operations Guide. Retrieved December 20, 2005, from http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/.
,National Institute of Mental Health (2001) Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass Violence. A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices. NIH Publication No. 02-5138. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/massviolence.pdf.
Naturale, A. (2006) Outreach strategies: an experiential description of the outreach methodologies used in the September 11, 2001, disaster response in New York (pp. 365–386) In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Neria, Y., Gross, R., Marshall, R., Susser, E. (2006) 9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
,New England Complex Systems Institute (NECSI) Retrieved April 20, 2006, from http://necsi.org/index.html.
,New South Wales Health Department (2000) Disaster Mental Health Response Handbook. NSW Health and the Centre for Mental Health, Sydney. Australia. Retrieved January 3, 2008 from: http://www.nswiop.nsw.edu.au/Resources/Disaster_Handbook.pdf.
Norris, F. (2005) Range, Magnitude, and Duration of the Effects of Disaster on Mental Health: Review Update 2005. Dartmouth College Research Education review article retrieved January 3, 2008 from http://www.redmh.org/research/general/REDMH_effects.pdf.
Norris, F., Friedman, M., Watson, P., Byrne, C., Diaz, E., Kaniasty, K. (2002a) 60,000 disaster victims speak, Part I: An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.Google Scholar
Norris, F., Friedman, M., Watson, P. (2002b) 60,000 disaster victims speak, Part II: Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65, 240–260.Google Scholar
Norris, F., Hamblen, J., Watson, P.et al. (2006) Toward understanding and creating systems of post-disaster care: a case study of new york's response to the World Trade Center disaster (pp. 343–365). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Ober, C., Peeters, L., Archer, R., Kelly, K. (2000) Debriefing in different cultural frameworks: responding to acute trauma in Australian Aboriginal context. In: Raphael, B., Wilson, J. P. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Olds, D., Hill, P., Robinson, J., et al. (2000) Update on home visiting for pregnant women and parents of young chi1dren. Current Problems in Pediatrics, 30, 107–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. (1977) Cyclone Tracy and Darwin evacuees: on the restoration of the species. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 548–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prigerson, H. G., Jacobs, S. C. (2001) Traumatic grief as a distinct disorder: a rationale, consensus criteria, and a preliminary empirical test (pp. 613–646). In: Stroebe, M. S., Hansson, R. O., Stroebe, W., Schut, H. (eds.) Handbook of Bereavement Research: Consequences, Coping, and Care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Prigerson, H. G., Maciejewski, P. K. (2005) A call for sound empirical testing and evaluation of criteria for complicated grief Proposed for DSM-V. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 52 (1), 9.Google Scholar
Prigerson, H., Ahmed, I., Silverman, G.et al. (2002) Rates and risks of complicated grief as a risk factor among psychiatric clinic patients in Karachi, Pakistan. Death Studies, 26, 781–792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pynoos, R., Nader, K. (1988) Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: research implications. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 445–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pynoos, R. S., Nader, K. (1993) Issues in the treatment of posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents (pp. 535–550). In Wilson, J. P., Raphael, B. (eds.) International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes. New York: Plenum.
Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A. K., and Steinberg, A. M. (1995) Strategies of disaster intervention for children and adolescents. (pp. 445–471). In: Hobfoll, S. E., Vries, M. W. (eds.) Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention.. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Schreiber, M. D., Brymer, M. J. (2006) Children and families: a new framework for preparedness and response to danger, terrorism, and trauma. In: Schein, L. A., Spitz, H. I., Burlingame, G. M., Muskin, P. R. (eds.) Psychological Effects of Catastrophic Disasters: Group Approaches to Treatment. New York: Haworth.
Raphael, B. (1977) The Granville train disaster: psychological needs and their management. Medical Journal Australia, 1, 303–305.Google Scholar
Raphael, B. (1983) Psychiatry consultancy in major disaster. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 18, 303–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raphael, B. (2000) A Population Health Model for the Provision of Mental Health Care, Commonwealth of Australia. http://www.health.gov.au
Raphael, B., and Wilson, J., (eds.) (2000) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice, and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Raphael, B., Wooding, S. (2004) Early mental health interventions for traumatic loss in adults (pp. 147–178). In: Litz, B. (ed.) Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.
Raphael, B., Dunsmore, J., Wooding, S. (2004) Terror and trauma in Bali: Australia's mental health response. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 9 (2), 245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raphael, B., Stevens, G., Dunsmore, J. (2006) Restorative and Clinical Theories: Revision of Theory. In: Rynearson, E. K. (ed.) Violent Death: Resilience and Intervention Beyond the Crisis. New York: Routledge.
Raphael, B., Delaney, P., Bonner, D. (2007) Assessing trauma with Australian aboriginal peoples. In: Wilson, P., Tang, C. (eds.) Cross-Cultural Assessment of Psychological Trauma and PTSD. New York: Springer Verlag.
Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) (2006) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Rosen, C., Young, H., Norris, F. (2006) On a road paved with good intentions, you still need a compass: monitoring and evaluating mental health services (pp. 206–226). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
SAMHSA, (2000) Training Manual for Mental Health and Human Service Workers in Major Disasters, 2nd edn. Centre for Mental Health Services (Publication No. ADM 90-538). Retrieved January 3, 2008 from http://www.mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/publications/allpubs/ADM90-538/Default.asp.
Shalev, A. Y. (2000) Historical concepts and present patterns: stress management and debriefing. (pp. 17–31). In: Raphael, B., Wilson, T. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing. Theory Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shalev, A. Y. (2006) Interventions for traumatic stress: theoretical basis. In: Ritchie, E. C. (ed.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters. New York: Guilford Press.
Shalev, A. Y., Sahar, T., Freedman, S.et al. (1998) A prospective study of heart rate responses following trauma and the subsequent development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 553–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shear, K., Frank, E., Houck, P. R., & Reynolds, C. F. (2005) Treatment of complicated grief: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293, 2601–2608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silove, D. (1999) The psychosocial effects of torture, mass human rights violations, and refugee trauma: toward an integrated conceptual framework. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187 (4), 200–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, M., Mack, C., Reavis, N., Koepsell, T., Gross, D., Grossman, D. (2004) Effect of a clinic-based referral system to head start : a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 292, 968–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, A., Gorman, J. M. (2004) Psychopharmacological possibilities in the acute disaster setting. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 425–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, B., Raphael, B. (1981) Post disaster morbidity of the bereaved: a possible role for preventive psychiatry. Journal Nervous and Mental Disease, 169, 203–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M. (2006) Trajectories of PTSD: a 20-year longitudinal study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 659–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, Z., Rami, S., Mikulincer, M. (2005) Frontline treatment of combat stress reaction: a 20-year longitudinal evaluation study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162 (12), 2309–2314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speier, A. (2006) Disaster mental health training (pp. 54–79). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) (2006) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Taylor, P. M., (2006) The Fourth Arm and the Fourth Estate: Psychological Operations and the Media. In: Connelly, M., Welch, D. (eds.) War and the Media: Reportage and Propaganda 1900–2003 (pp. 251–263). London: IB Taurus.
Ursano, R., Friedman, M. (2006) Mental health and behavioural interventions for victims of disasters and mass violence: systems, caring, planning and needs (pp. 405–414). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press
,US Department of Health and Human Services (2003) Mental Health All-Hazards Disaster Planning Guidance. DHHS Publication. No. SMA 3829. Rockville, MD: Centre for Mental Health Services. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services.
Ommeren, M., Saxena, S., Saraceno, B. (2005) Aid after disasters: needs a long term public mental health perspective. British Medical Journal, 330, 1160–1161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Veterans Health Administration (2004) VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress. Washington DC: Veterans Health Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs and Health Affairs, Department of Defense. Office of Quality and Performance publication 10Q-CPG/PTSD-04.
Wain, H., Grammer, G., Statinos, J., DeBoer, C. (2006) Psychiatric intervention for medical-surgical patients following traumatic injuries (pp. 278–299). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Watson, P. J., Shalev, A. Y. (2005) Assessment and treatment of adult acute responses to traumatic stress following mass traumatic events. CNS Spectrums, 10, 125–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, P. J., Ritchie, E. C., Demer, J., Bartone, P., Pfefferbaum, B. J. (2006) Improving resilience trajectories following mass violence and disaster (pp. 37–53). In: Ritchie, C., Watson, P., Friedman, M. (eds.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Weaver, J. D., Dingman, R. L., Morgan, J., Hong, B. A., North, C. S. (2000) The American Red Cross Disaster Mental Health Services: development of a cooperative, single function. Multidisciplinary Service Model, 27 (3), 314–320.Google Scholar
Weine, S., Danieli, Y., Silove, D., Ommeren, M., Fairbank, J. A., Saul, J. (2002) Guidelines for international training in mental health and psychosocial interventions for trauma exposed populations in clinical and community settings. Psychiatry, 65 (2), 156–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisaeth, L. (2000) Briefing and debriefing: group psychological interventions in acute stressor situations (pp. 43–57). In: Raphael, B., Wilson, J. (eds.) Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weisaeth, L. (2004) Preventing after-effects of disaster trauma: the information and support centre. Pre-Hospital and Disaster Medicine, 19 (1), 86–89.CrossRef
Wessely, S. (2005) The London attacks-aftermath: victimhood and resilience. New England Journal of Medicine, 353, 548–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,WHO Kobe Centre: World Health Organization Centre for Health Development (2005) Consultative meeting on the development of a WHO assessment instrument for mental health systems – emergencies (WHO-AIMS-E), October 4-5, 2005, Kobe, Japan. Retrieved January 3, 2008 from http://www.who.or.jp/2005/mentalhealth.html.
Wilhelm, K., Mitchell, P., Niven, H., et al. (2006) Life events, first depression onset and the serotonin transporter gene. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 210–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. (2005) The Posttraumatic Self: Restoring Meaning and Wholeness to Personality. New York: Routledge.
Wooding, S., Raphael, B. (2004) Psychological impact of disasters and terrorism on children and adolescents: experiences from Australia. Pre-Hospital and Disaster Medicine, 19(1), 10–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, B. (2006) The immediate response to disaster: guidelines for adult psychological first aid, considerations and recommendations. In: Ritchie, C. (ed.) Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters. New York: Guilford Press.
Zatzick, D., Wagner, A. (2004) Evaluating and treating injured trauma survivors in trauma care systems (13, pp. 263–283). In: Litz, B. T. (ed). Early Intervention for Trauma and Traumatic Loss. New York: Guilford Press.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×