In through , ritual law texts were used to evaluate the hypothesis that Shī‘ī sectarian identities first coalesced in Kūfa during the early 2nd/8th century. presented a revised chronology for early Zaydism that aligned with the results of the three case studies. The final two chapters of this book shift from the question of when sectarian groups emerged to the equally important question of how they demarcated themselves from broader Kūfan society. Most modern studies emphasize the role of theological doctrines in this process, but such an approach has a number of drawbacks. Firstly, there are no extant theological works (i.e., heresiographies) contemporaneous with the beginnings of Shī‘ī identity in the early 2nd/8th century. Secondly, later heresiographical works ascribe sects with coherent and mature doctrines, thereby eliding the gradual and piecemeal process by which theological positions develop. This does not necessarily mean that theological explanations are incorrect. After all, they proved quite reliable in dating the birth of Imāmī identity. It does, however, highlight the need for exploring avenues for the study of early sectarianism grounded in nontheological sources.

This chapter offers one such alternative, focusing on visible differences in ritual practice. Kūfa in the 2nd/8th century was home to a myriad of rival groups that advocated often contradictory positions on basic aspects of ritual law. The most famous of these differences concerned the status of alcoholic beverages derived from substances other than grapes or dates () with a number of prominent authorities (e.g., AbūḤanīfa and Muḥammad al-Shaybānī) allowing limited consumption. Others involved the structure of the daily prayer such as the recitation of the basmala () and the performance of the qunūt (). It is possible that individuals were initially free to choose from a range of practices without being criticized or accused of innovation. At some point, however, adherence to a particular ritual form appears to have acquired a material significance – a change that had profound implications for the development of communal identity.