Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-2pzkn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-21T14:36:35.970Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 22 - Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke and its Late Complications

from Section 4 - Therapeutic Strategies and Neurorehabilitation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2019

Michael Brainin
Affiliation:
Donau-Universität Krems, Austria
Wolf-Dieter Heiss
Affiliation:
Universität zu Köln
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Wallace, JD, Levy, LL. Blood pressure after stroke. JAMA 1981; 246: 2177–80.Google Scholar
Carlberg, B, Asplund, K, Hägg, E. Factors influencing admission blood pressure levels in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1991; 22: 527–30.Google Scholar
Urrutia, VC, Wityk, RJ. Blood pressure management in acute stroke. Crit Care Clin 2006; 22: 695711.Google Scholar
Ahmed, N, de la Torre, B, Wahlgren, NG. Salivary cortisol, a biological marker of stress, is positively associated with 24-hour systolic blood pressure in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004; 18: 206–13.Google Scholar
Christensen, H. Acute stroke – a dynamic process. Dan Med Bull 2007; 54(3): 210–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Leonardi-Bee, J, Bath, PM, Phillips, SJ, Sandercock, PA, IST Collaborative Group. Blood pressure and clinical outcomes in the International Stroke Trial. Stroke 2002; 33: 1315–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vemmos, KN, Tsivgoulis, G, Spengos, K, et al. U-shaped relationship between mortality and admission blood pressure in patients with acute stroke. J Intern Med 2004; 255: 257–65.Google Scholar
Grabska, K, Niewada, M, Sarzyńska-Długosz, I, Kamiński, B, Członkowska, A. Pulse pressure – independent predictor of poor early outcome and mortality following ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009; 27: 187–92.Google Scholar
Aslanyan, S, Fazekas, F, Weir, CJ, et al. Effect of blood pressure during the acute period of ischemic stroke on stroke outcome: a tertiary analysis of the GAIN International Trial. Stroke 2003; 34: 2420–5.Google Scholar
Jansen, PAF, Schulte, BPM, Poels, EFJ, Gribnau, FWJ. Course of blood pressure after cerebral infarction and transient ischemic attack. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1987; 89: 243–6.Google Scholar
Semplicini, A, Maresca, A, Boscolo, G, et al. Hypertension in acute ischemic stroke. A compensatory mechanism or an additional damaging factor? Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 211–16.Google Scholar
Willmot, M, Leonardi-Bee, J, Bath, PM. High blood pressure in acute stroke and subsequent outcome: a systematic review. Hypertension 2004; 43: 1824.Google Scholar
Brott, T, Lu, M, Kothari, R, et al. Hypertension and its treatment in the NINDS rt-PA Stroke Trial. Stroke 1998; 29: 1504–9.Google Scholar
Chamorro, A, Vila, N, Ascaso, C, et al. Blood pressure and functional recovery in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1998; 29: 1850–3.Google Scholar
Carlberg, B, Asplund, K, Hägg, E. The prognostic value of admission blood pressure in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1993; 24: 1372–5.Google Scholar
Ahmed, N, Wahlgren, N, Brainin, M, et al. Relationship of blood pressure, antihypertensive therapy, and outcome in ischemic stroke treated with intravenous thrombolysis: retrospective analysis from Safe Implementation of Thrombolysis in Stroke-International Stroke Thrombolysis Register (SITS- ISTR). Stroke 2009; 40: 2442–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattle, HP, Kappeler, L, Arnold, M, et al. Blood pressure and vessel recanalization in the first hours after ischemic stroke. Stroke 2005; 36: 264–8.Google Scholar
Bowry, R, Navalkele, DD, Gonzales, NR. Blood pressure management in stroke: five new things. Neurol Clin Pract 2014; 4: 419–26.Google Scholar
Hong, KS. Blood pressure management for stroke prevention and in acute stroke. J Stroke 2017; 19: 152–65.Google Scholar
Wahlgren, N, Ahmed, N, Eriksson, N, et al. Multivariable analysis of outcome predictors and adjustment of main outcome results to baseline data profile in randomized controlled trials: safe implementation of thrombolysis in stroke-monitoring study (SITS-MOST). Stroke 2008; 39: 3316–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, Y, Sharma, VK, Robinson, T, et al. Rationale, design, and progress of the ENhanced Control of Hypertension ANd Thrombolysis strokE stuDy (ENCHANTED) trial: an international multicenter 2×2 quasi-factorial randomized controlled trial of low- vs. standard-dose rt-PA and early intensive vs. guideline-recommended blood pressure lowering in patients with acute ischaemic stroke eligible for thrombolysis treatment. Int J Stroke 2015; 10: 778–88.Google Scholar
Shin, HK, Nishimura, M, Jones, PB, et al. Mild induced hypertension improves blood flow and oxygen metabolism in transient focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke 2008; 39: 1548–55.Google Scholar
Rordorf, G, Koroshetz, WJ, Ezzeddine, MA, Segal, AZ, Buonanno, FS. A pilot study of drug-induced hypertension for treatment of acute stroke. Neurology 2001; 56: 1210–13.Google Scholar
Marzan, AS, Hungerbühler, HJ, Studer, A, Baumgartner, RW, Georgiadis, D. Feasibility and safety of norepinephrine-induced arterial hypertension in acute ischemic stroke. Neurology 2004; 62: 1193–5.Google Scholar
Hillis, AE, Ulatowski, JA, Barker, PB, et al. A pilot randomized trial of induced blood pressure elevation: effects on function and focal perfusion in acute and subacute stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2003; 16: 236–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, TS, Larsen, B, Herning, M, Skriver, EB, Lassen, NA. Blood flow and vascular reactivity in collaterally perfused brain tissue. Evidence of an ischemic penumbra in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1983; 14: 332–41.Google Scholar
Mistri, AK, Robinson, TG, Potter, JF. Pressor therapy in acute ischemic stroke: systematic review. Stroke 2006; 37: 1565–71.Google Scholar
Kim, HJ, Kang, DW. Induced hypertensive therapy in an acute ischemic stroke patient with early neurological deterioration. J Clin Neurol 2007; 3: 187–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serena, J, Rodríguez-Yáñez, M, Castellanos, M. Deterioration in acute ischemic stroke as the target for neuroprotection. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 21: 80–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astrup, J, Siesjo, BK, Symon, L. Thresholds in cerebral ischemia – the ischemic penumbra. Stroke 1981; 12: 723–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wityk, RJ. Blood pressure augmentation in acute ischemic stroke. J Neurol Sci 2007; 261: 6373.Google Scholar
Schrader, J, Lüders, S, Kulschewski, A, et al. Acute Candesartan Cilexetil Therapy in Stroke Survivors Study Group. The ACCESS Study: evaluation of acute candesartan cilexetil therapy in stroke survivors. Stroke 2003; 34: 1699–703.Google Scholar
Potter, JF, Robinson, TG, Ford, GA, et al. Controlling hypertension and hypotension immediately post-stroke (CHHIPS): a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind pilot trial. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 4856.Google Scholar
Sandset, EC, Bath, PM, Boysen, G, et al. The angiotensin-receptor blocker candesartan for treatment of acute stroke (SCAST): a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Lancet 2011; 377: 741–50.Google Scholar
Copen, WA, Schaefer, PW, Wu, O. MR perfusion imaging in acute ischemic stroke. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2011; 21: 259–83.Google Scholar
Adams, HP, Jr., del Zoppo, G, Alberts, MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke 2007; 38: 1655–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee and the ESO Writing Committee. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25: 457507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jauch, EC, Saver, JL, Adams, HP, Jr., et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013; 44: 870947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ENOS Trial Investigators. Efficacy of nitric oxide, with or without continuing antihypertensive treatment, for management of high blood pressure in acute stroke (ENOS): a partial-factorial randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015; 385: 617–28.Google Scholar
Vázquez-Cruz, J, Martí-Vilalta, JL, Ferrer, I, Pérez-Gallofré, A, Folch, J. Progressing cerebral infarction in relation to plasma glucose in gerbils. Stroke 1990; 21: 1621–4.Google Scholar
Martín, A, Rojas, S, Chamorro, A, et al. Why does acute hyperglycemia worsen the outcome of transient focal cerebral ischemia? Role of corticosteroids, inflammation, and protein O-glycosylation. Stroke 2006; 37: 1288–95.Google Scholar
Kiers, L, Davis, SM, Larkins, R, et al. Stroke topography and outcome in relation to hyperglycaemia and diabetes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 263–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matz, K, Keresztes, K, Tatschl, C, et al. Disorders of glucose metabolism in acute stroke patients: an underrecognized problem. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 792–7.Google Scholar
McCormick, MT, Muir, KW, Gray, CS, Walters, MR. Management of hyperglycemia in acute stroke: how, when, and for whom? Stroke 2008; 39: 2177–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capes, SE, Hunt, D, Malmberg, K, Pathak, P, Gerstein, HC. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke 2001; 32: 2426–32.Google Scholar
Alvarez-Sabín, J, Molina, CA, Montaner, J, et al. Effects of admission hyperglycemia on stroke outcome in reperfused tissue plasminogen activator-treated patients. Stroke 2003; 34: 1235–41.Google Scholar
Parsons, MW, Barber, PA, Desmond, PM, et al. Acute hyperglycemia adversely affects stroke outcome: a magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol 2002; 52: 20–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pan, Y, Cai, X, Jing, J, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of minor ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack: the CHANCE Study (Clopidogrel in High-Risk Patients With Acute Nondisabling Cerebrovascular Events). Stroke 2017; 48: 3006–11.Google Scholar
Allport, LE, Butcher, KS, Baird, TA, et al. Insular cortical ischemia is independently associated with acute stress hyperglycemia. Stroke 2004; 35: 1886–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rehman, A, Kumar, A, Razzaque, S, Kumar, A, Ghauri, MI. Stress induced hyperglycemia in stroke patients. Pakistan J Neurological Sci 2015; 10: Article 4.Google Scholar
van den Berghe, G, Wouters, P, Weekers, F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1359–67.Google Scholar
Malmberg, K. Prospective randomized study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. BMJ 1997; 314: 1512–15.Google Scholar
Gray, CS, Hildreth, AJ, Sandercock, PA, et al. Glucose- potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 397406.Google Scholar
Godoy, DA, Di Napoli, M, Rabinstein, AA. Treating hyperglycemia in neurocritical patients: benefits and perils. Neurocrit Care 2010; 13: 425–38.Google Scholar
Johnston, KC, Hall, CE, Kissela, BM, Bleck, TP, Conaway, MR; GRASP Investigators. Glucose regulation in acute stroke patients (GRASP) trial: a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2009; 40: 3804–9.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Kent, TA, Coull, BM, et al. Treatment of hyperglycemia in ischemic stroke (THIS): a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2008; 39: 384–9.Google Scholar
Rosso, C, Corvol, JC, Pires, C, et al. Intensive versus subcutaneous insulin in patients with hyperacute stroke: results from the randomized INSULINFARCT trial. Stroke 2012; 43: 2343–9.Google Scholar
Baker, L, Juneja, R, Bruno, A. Management of hyperglycemia in acute ischemic stroke. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; 13: 616–28.Google Scholar
Bellolio, MF, Gilmore, RM, Stead, LG. Insulin for glycaemic control in acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 1: CD005346.Google Scholar
Cleland, SJ, Petrie, JR, Small, M, Elliott, HL, Connell, JM. Insulin action is associated with endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Hypertension 2000; 35: 507–11.Google Scholar
Marik, PE, Raghavan, M. Stress-hyperglycemia, insulin and immunomodulation in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 748–56.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Liebeskind, D, Hao, Q, Raychev, R, et al. Diabetes mellitus, acute hyperglycemia, and ischemic stroke. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2010; 12: 492503.Google Scholar
Walters, MR, Weir, CJ, Lees, KR. A randomised, controlled pilot study to investigate the potential benefit of intervention with insulin in hyperglycaemic acute ischaemic stroke patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 22: 116–22.Google Scholar
Gray, CS, Hildreth, AJ, Sandercock, PA, et al. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 397406.Google Scholar
Wan Sulaiman, WA, Hashim, HZ, Che Abdullah, ST, Hoo, FK, Basri, H. Managing post stroke hyperglycaemia: moderate glycaemic control is better? An update. EXCLI J 2014; 13: 825–33.Google Scholar
Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party. National Clinical Guideline for Stroke. 4th edn. London: RCP; 2012.Google Scholar
Memezawa, H, Zhao, Q, Smith, ML, Siesjö, BK. Hyperthermia nullifies the ameliorating effect of dizocilpine maleate (MK-801) in focal cerebral ischemia. Brain Res 1995; 670: 4852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wass, CT, Lanier, WL, Hofer, RE, Scheithauer, BW, Andrews, AG. Temperature changes of > or 1 degree C alter functional neurologic outcome and histopathology in a canine model of complete cerebral ischemia. Anesthesiology 1995; 83: 325–35.Google Scholar
Reith, J, Jørgensen, HS, Pedersen, PM, et al. Body temperature in acute stroke: relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome. Lancet 1996; 347: 422–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castillo, J, Dávalos, A, Marrugat, J, Noya, M. Timing for fever-related brain damage in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1998; 29: 2455–60.Google Scholar
Zaremba, J. Hyperthermia in ischemic stroke. Med Sci Monit 2004; 10: RA148–53.Google Scholar
Mercer, J. Glossary of terms for thermal physiology, third edition. Jpn J Physiol 2001; 51: 245–8.Google Scholar
Wrotek, SE, Kozak, WE, Hess, DC, Fagan, SC. Treatment of fever after stroke: conflicting evidence. Pharmacotherapy 2011; 31: 1085–91.Google Scholar
Kozak, W, Kluger, MJ, Tesfaigzi, J, et al. Molecular mechanisms of fever and endogenous antipyresis. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000; 917: 121–34.Google Scholar
Azzimondi, G, Bassein, L, Nonino, F, et al. Fever in acute stroke worsens prognosis. A prospective study. Stroke 1995; 26: 2040–3.Google Scholar
Greer, DM, Funk, SE, Reaven, NL, Ouzounelli, M, Uman, GC. Impact of fever on outcome in patients with stroke and neurologic injury: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Stroke 2008; 39: 3029–35.Google Scholar
Varon, J, Acosta, P. Therapeutic hypothermia: past, present, and future. Chest 2008; 133: 1267–74.Google Scholar
Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurological outcome after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 549–56.Google Scholar
Clifton, GL, Miller, ER, Choi, SC, et al. Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 556–63.Google Scholar
Kasner, SE, Wein, T, Piriyawat, P, et al. Acetaminophen for altering body temperature in acute stroke: a randomized clinical trial. Stroke 2002; 33: 130–4.Google Scholar
Dippel, DW, van Breda, EJ, van Gemert, HM, et al. Effect of paracetamol (acetaminophen) on body temperature in acute ischemic stroke: a double-blind, randomized phase II clinical trial. Stroke 2001; 32: 1607–12.Google Scholar
Schwab, S, Schwarz, S, Spranger, M, et al. Moderate hypothermia in the treatment of patients with severe middle cerebral artery infarction. Stroke 1998; 29: 2461–6.Google Scholar
Guluma, KZ, Oh, H, Yu, SW, et al. Effect of endovascular hypothermia on acute ischemic edema: morphometric analysis of the ICTuS trial. Neurocrit Care 2008; 8: 42–7.Google Scholar
Olsen, TS, Weber, UJ, Kammersgaard, LP, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute stroke. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 410–16.Google Scholar
De Georgia, MA, Krieger, DW, Abou-Chebl, A, et al. Cooling for Acute Ischemic Brain Damage (COOL AID): a feasibility trial of endovascular cooling. Neurology 2004; 63: 312–17.Google Scholar
Lyden, P, Krieger, DW, Yenari, MA, Dietrich, WD. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute stroke. Int J Stroke 2006; 1: 919.Google Scholar
Yenari, M, Kitagawa, K, Lyden, P, Perez-Pinzon, M. Metabolic downregulation: a key to successful neuroprotection? Stroke 2008; 39: 2910–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, DW, Yenari, MA. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute ischemic stroke: what do laboratory studies teach us? Stroke 2004; 35: 1482–9.Google Scholar
Yenari, MA, Hemmen, TM. Therapeutic hypothermia for brain ischemia: where have we come and where do we go? Stroke 2010; 41: S72–4.Google Scholar
Forsgren, L, Bucht, G, Eriksson, S, Bergmark, L. Incidence and clinical characterization of unprovoked seizures in adults: a prospective population-based study. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 224–9.Google Scholar
Bladin, CF, Alexandrov, AV, Bellavance, A, et al. Seizures after stroke: a prospective multicenter study. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 1617–22.Google Scholar
Lesser, RP, Luders, H, Dinner, DS, Morris, HH. Epileptic seizures due to thrombotic and embolic cerebrovascular disease in older patients. Epilepsia 1985; 26: 622–30.Google Scholar
So, EL, Annegers, JF, Hauser, WA, O'Brien, PC, Whisnant, JP. Population-based study of seizure disorders after cerebral infarction. Neurology 1996; 46: 350–5.Google Scholar
Kilpatrick, CJ, Davis, SM, Tress, BM, et al. Epileptic seizures in acute stroke. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 157–60.Google Scholar
Shinton, RA, Gill, JS, Melnick, AK. The frequency, characteristics, and prognosis of epileptic seizures at the onset of stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 273–6.Google Scholar
Arboix, A, Garcia-Eroles, L, Massons, JB, Oliveres, M, Comes, E. Predictive factors of early seizures after acute cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1997; 28: 1590–4.Google Scholar
Reith, J, Jørgensen, HS, Nakayama, H, Raaschou, HO, Olsen, TS. Seizures in acute stroke: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Stroke 1997; 28: 1585–9.Google Scholar
Giroud, M, Gras, P, Fayolle, H, et al. Early seizures after stroke: a study of 1,640 cases. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 959–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, TS. Post-stroke epilepsy. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2001; 3: 340–4. Review.Google Scholar
Benbir, G, Ince, B, Bozluolcay, M. The epidemiology of post-stroke epilepsy according to stroke sub-types. Acta Neurol Scand 2006; 114: 812.Google Scholar
Myint, PK, Staufenberg, EF, Sabanathan, K. Post-stroke seizure and post-stroke epilepsy. Postgrad Med J 2006; 82: 568–72.Google Scholar
Conrad, J, Pawlowski, M, Dogan, M, et al. Seizures after cerebrovascular events: risk factors and clinical features. Seizure 2013; 22: 275–82.Google Scholar
Cordonnier, C, Hénon, H, Derambure, P, Pasquier, F, Leys, D. Influence of pre-existing dementia on the risk of post-stroke epileptic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76: 1649–53.Google Scholar
De Reuck, J, Proot, P, Van Maele, G. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a risk factor for stroke-related seizures. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14: 989–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sun, DA, Sombati, S, DeLorenzo, RJ. Glutamate injury-induced epileptogenesis in hippocampal neurons: an in vitro model of stroke-induced “epilepsy.” Stroke 2001; 32: 2344–50.Google Scholar
Stroemer, RP, Kent, TA, Hulsebosch, CE. Neocortical neural sprouting, synaptogenesis, and behavioral recovery after neocortical infarction in rats. Stroke 1995; 26: 2135–44.Google Scholar
Gilad, R, Lampl, Y, Eschel, Y, Sadeh, M. Antiepileptic treatment in patients with early postischemic stroke seizures: a retrospective study. Cerebrovas Dis 2001; 12: 3943.Google Scholar
Holtkamp, M, Beghi, E, Benninger, F, et al. European Stroke Organisation guidelines for the management of post-stroke seizures and epilepsy. ESJ 2017; 2: 103–15.Google Scholar
Ryvlin, P, Montavont, A, Nighoghossian, N. Optimizing therapy of seizures in stroke patients. Neurology 2006; 67: S3–9.Google Scholar
Gilad, R. Management of seizures following a stroke: what are the options? Drugs Aging 2012; 29: 533–8.Google Scholar
Alvarez-Sabín, J, Montaner, J, Padró, L, et al. Gabapentin in late-onset poststroke seizures. Neurology 2002; 59: 1991–3.Google Scholar
Gilad, R, Sadeh, M, Rapoport, A, et al. Monotherapy of lamotrigine versus carbamazepine in patients with poststroke seizure. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007; 30: 189–95.Google Scholar
Hackett, ML, Yapa, C, Parag, V, Anderson, CS. Frequency of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke 2005; 36: 1330–4.Google Scholar
Paolucci, S, Gandolfo, C, Provinciali, L, Torta, R, Toso, V. The Italian multicenter observational study on post-stroke depression (DESTRO). J Neurol 2006; 253: 556–62.Google Scholar
Morris, PL, Robinson, RG, Samuels, J. Depression, introversion and mortality following stroke. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1993; 27: 443–9.Google Scholar
Yuan, HW, Wang, CX, Zhang, N, et al. Poststroke depression and risk of recurrent stroke at 1 year in a Chinese cohort study. PLoS One 2012; 7: e46906.Google Scholar
Gainotti, G, Marra, C. Determinants and consequences of post-stroke depression. Curr Opin Neurol 2002; 15: 85–9.Google Scholar
Narushima, K, Kosier, JT, Robinson, RG. A reappraisal of poststroke depression, intra- and inter-hemispheric lesion location using meta-analysis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003; 15: 422–30.Google Scholar
Bhogal, SK, Teasell, R, Foley, N, Speechley, M. Lesion location and poststroke depression: systematic review of the methodological limitations in the literature. Stroke 2004; 35: 794802.Google Scholar
Gaete, JM, Bogousslavsky, J. Post-stroke depression. Expert Rev Neurother 2008; 8: 7592.Google Scholar
Brodaty, H, Withball, A, Sachdev, PS. Rates of depression at 3 and 15 months poststroke and their relationship with cognitive decline: the Sydney Stroke Study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007; 15: 477–86.Google Scholar
Shi, Y, Yang, D, Zeng, Y, Wu, W. Risk factors for post-stroke depression: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 2017; 9: 218.Google Scholar
Robinson, RG, Jorge, RE, Moser, DJ, et al. Escitalopram and problem-solving therapy for prevention of poststroke depression: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 299: 2391–400.Google Scholar
Ried, LD, Jia, H, Feng, H, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and depression are associated with poststroke mortality. Ann Pharmacother 2011; 45: 888–97.Google Scholar
Sun, Y, Liang, Y, Jiao, Y, et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antidepressant treatment in poststroke depression: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2017; 7: e016499.Google Scholar
Román, GC, Tatemichi, TK, Erkinjuntti, T, et al. Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology 1993; 43: 250–60.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). 4th edn. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
Wetterling, T, Kanitz, RD, Borgis, KJ. Comparison of different diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia (ADDTC, DSM-IV, ICD-10, NINDS-AIREN). Stroke 1996; 27: 30–6.Google Scholar
Dubois, MF, Hébert, R. The incidence of vascular dementia in Canada: a comparison with Europe and East Asia. Neuroepidemiology 2001; 20: 179–87.Google Scholar
Mijajlović, MD, Pavlović, A, Brainin, M, et al. Post-stroke dementia – a comprehensive review. BMC Med 2017; 15: 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hénon, H, Durieu, I, Guerouaou, D, et al. Poststroke dementia: incidence and relationship to prestroke cognitive decline. Neurology 2001; 57: 1216–22.Google Scholar
Ince, PG, Fernando, MS. Neuropathology of vascular cognitive impairment and vascular dementia. Int Psychogeriatr 2003; 15: 71–5.Google Scholar
Jellinger, KA. Pathology and pathophysiology of vascular cognitive impairment. A critical update. Panminerva Med 2004; 46: 217–21.Google Scholar
Ince, PG, Fernando, MS. Neuropathology of vascular cognitive impairment and vascular dementia. Int Psychogeriatr 2003; 15: 71–5.Google Scholar
Skoog, I. Status of risk factors for vascular dementia. Neuroepidemiology 1998; 17: 29.Google Scholar
Bornstein, NM, Gur, AY, Treves, TA, et al. Do silent brain infarctions predict the development of dementia after first ischemic stroke? Stroke 1996; 27: 904–5.Google Scholar
Longstreth, WT, Jr., Manolio, TA, Arnold, A, et al. Clinical correlates of white matter findings on cranial magnetic resonance imaging of 3 301 elderly people. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke 1996; 27: 1274–82.Google Scholar
Gur, AY, Neufeld, MY, Treves, TA, et al. EEG as predictor of dementia following first ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 1994; 90: 263–5.Google Scholar
Snowdon, DA, Greiner, LH, Mortimer, JA, et al. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study. JAMA 1997; 277: 813–17.Google Scholar
Kavirajan, H, Schneider, LS. Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 782–92.Google Scholar
Ingles, JL, Eskes, GA, Phillips, SJ. Fatigue after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 173–8.Google Scholar
Staub, F, Bogousslavsky, J. Fatigue after stroke: a major but neglected issue. Cerebrovasc Dis 2001; 12: 7581.Google Scholar
Fisk, JD, Pontefract, A, Ritvo, PG, Archibald, CJ, Murray, TJ. The impact of fatigue on patients with multiple sclerosis. Can J Neurol Sci 1994; 21: 914.Google Scholar
Rose, L, Pugh, LC, Lears, K, Gordon, DL. The fatigue experience: persons with HIV infection. J Adv Nurs 1998; 28: 295304.Google Scholar
Riemsma, RP, Rasker, JJ, Taal, E, et al. Fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis: the role of self-efficacy and problematic social support. Br J Rheumatol 1998; 37: 1042–6.Google Scholar
Zwarts, MJ, Bleijenberg, G, van Engelen, BG. Clinical neurophysiology of fatigue. Clin Neurophysiol 2008; 119: 210.Google Scholar
van der Werf, SP, van den Broek, HL, Anten, HW, Bleijenberg, G. Experience of severe fatigue long after stroke and its relation to depressive symptoms and disease characteristics. Eur Neurol 2001; 45: 2833.Google Scholar
Kutlubaev, MA, Duncan, FH, Mead, GE. Biological correlates of post-stroke fatigue: a systematic review. Acta Neurol Scand 2012; 125: 219–27.Google Scholar
Glader, EL, Stegmayr, B, Asplund, K. Poststroke fatigue: a 2-year follow-up study of stroke patients in Sweden. Stroke 2002; 33: 1327–33.Google Scholar
Naess, H, Lunde, L, Brogger, J, Waje-Andreassen, U. Fatigue among stroke patients on long-term follow-up. The Bergen Stroke Study. J Neurol Sci 2012; 312: 138–41.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×