Introduction

Is there any connection between what is fuzzily named ‘activation’ and what is equally fuzzily named the ‘European Social Model – ESM’? At first sight the answer might be considered obvious: social policies at the European Union (EU) level are commonly framed in terms of ‘activation’, a term that has now become very commonplace in political texts. Yet, to address the question more seriously one needs, first, a robust notion of what the ESM is/could be – not only as a mobilising motto, but as an existing entity – and, second, a firm conceptualisation of ‘activation’ and of the forms it actually takes across various EU member states.

This chapter intends to show that the activation component in the existing ESM certainly offers no clear means of distinguishing it from other social ‘models’ in the world.

At the EU level, where most of the talk about the ESM is taking place, it is perhaps a paradox that existing coordinating processes (Open Methods of Coordination – OMCs) have so far had little substantive impact on this question. On the other hand, both ‘activation policies’ and the ESM are broad concepts able to accommodate not only many different patterns, but also changing ones. The inclusion of the new member states will certainly not make convergence easier.

The notion of an ESM, between normative and analytical

The notion of an ESM is one with which it is particularly difficult to come objectively to grips, because it is so much a part of the current political discourse and international policy debate. Even so, we will argue here that, provided certain precautions are taken, the concept may also be taken seriously as an analytical tool.

A highly normative notion, the ‘mobilising ESM’

It has been shown that the notion is extensively polysemous and ambiguous. According to Jepsen and Serrano Pascual (this volume), the expression ‘European Social Model’ was first used during Jacques Delors’ presidency of the European Commission. It is indeed quite fitting that the concept should have been promoted during an era when competition between the United States (US) and Europe unleashed debates among international and especially European elites. Accordingly, the first steps of the European Employment Strategy (EES) (1992-97), the adoption of the Lisbon Strategy (2000) and the subsequent introduction of various OMCs have also been set in a wider ESM perspective and, more often than not, situated in the context of competition with the ‘US model’.