Introduction: The intersection between the policy framework and social inequalities

Caregivers develop their care arrangements in a context shaped by many factors: the degree of caregiving needed, other caregiving and familial demands, the degree to which caregiving tasks may be shared within the family and informal networks as well as with non-family services, and conditions at work. The interaction of these multiple factors and their variability over time render each case unique to some degree. Yet the policy framework along with the individual and household socio-economic resources are powerful elements in structuring the range of available options, particularly with regard to the two dimensions that are crucial for the viability of any care arrangement, particularly when the caregiver is in paid employment: the possibility of being relieved from part of the caregiving and a degree of control over one's own time. These factors also play an important role in diminishing or strengthening gender inequalities (Korpi 2000). In this chapter, therefore, we focus on the ways in which socio-economic conditions affect the caregiving strategies and arrangements of individuals and households in the German policy context.

Social inequalities concern first of all financial resources, in the sense that they make it possible to buy care (Arber & Ginn 1992; Carmichael & Charles 1998; Sarasa 2008; Saraceno 2010, 2011). Inadequate financial resources are especially crucial in Germany because access to affordable subsidised childcare facilities is limited (though there are important regional differences), market solutions are expensive, and tax deductions for private childcare costs favour wealthier parents. Only in recent years have family policies partially shifted their focus to encourage both labour market participation and fertility, specifically with regard to highly educated mothers (Jüttner, Leitner & Rüling 2009). The provision of services has been increased through the subsidisation of childminders, but the increase in services has failed to cover the demand. For older children, the right to a place in a kindergarten does not extend to the right to a full-day service. Furthermore, the opening hours and rigid organisation of childcare often do not fit parents’ changing schedules (Esch, Klaudy & Stöbe-Blossey 2005).

Elementary school, moreover, is mostly part-time. Any additional time (after-school clubs, early opening hours) must be paid for, and the quality and organisation of these services (e.g. whether or not they provide lunch) vary greatly across municipalities.