Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-qxdb6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-29T12:50:07.978Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

San Patrice: An Example of Late Paleoindian Adaptive Versatility in South-Central North America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Thomas A. Jennings
Thomas A. Jennings*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, TexasA&M University, College Station, TX 77843 (tjennings6@tamu.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Coincident with the climatic changes occurring during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, a number of regionally distinct Paleoindian projectile-point styles emerged throughout North America. This paper examines one understudied and poorly understood Late Paleoindian style, the San Patrice point. Although traditionally considered woodland-adapted hunter-gatherers, projectile-point distributions indicate that San Patrice groups, utilizing the same hafting and resharpening technologies, also made significant use of plains resources. Raw material sourcing reveals that while all San Patrice populations focused on local toolstone sources, plains bands were more mobile than those in the woodlands. These findings have implications for our greater understanding of Paleoindian adaptations. While some hunter-gatherers developed specialized, environmentally specific strategies, San Patrice groups adopted more generalized strategies enabling them to succeed in diverse settings.

Résumé

Résumé

Coincidente con los cambios climáticos durante la transición del Pleistoceno-Holoceno, varios estilos de puntos proyectiles Paleoíndios distintos surgieron por Norteamérica. Este artículo examina el punto proyectil de San Patrice, um estilo Tarde Paleoíndio insuficientemente entendido y ya no estudado con profundidad. Aunque tradicionalmente considerados cazadoresrecolectores adaptados al bosque, los extensiones de los puntos proyectiles indican que los grupos de San Patrice, usando la mesma tecnología de poner mango y afilar de nuevo, también utilizaron en gran manera los recursos del llano. La fuente de materia prima revela que, mientras los grupos de San Patrice enfocaron en fuentes de materia prima y local, las bandas del llano eran más móviles que los grupos del bosque. Estos descubrimientos tienen implicaciones sobre nuestro entendimiento mayor de los adaptaciones de los Paleoíndios. Mientras algunos cazadores-recoletores desarrollaron estrategias específicas para un ambiente especializado, los grupos de San Patrice adoptaron estrategias más generalizadas, permitiendo buen éxito en puestas diversas.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 73 , Issue 3 , July 2008 , pp. 539 - 559
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Ahler, Stanley A., and Geib, Phil R. 2000 Why Flute? Folsom Point Design and Adaptation. Journal of Archaeological Science 27:799–820.Google Scholar
Alley, R. B., Meese, D. A., Shuman, C. A., Gow, A. J., Taylor, K. C., Grootes, P. M., White, J. W. C., Ram, M., Waddington, E. D., Mayewski, P. A., and Zielinski, G. A. 1993 Abrupt Increase in Greenland Snow Accumulation at the End of the Younger Dry as Event. Nature 362:527–529.Google Scholar
Amick, Daniel S. 1996 Regional Patterns of Folsom Mobility and Land Use in the American Southwest. World Archaeology 27:411–426.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 1990 The Paleoindian Colonization of Eastern North America: A View from the Southeastern United States. In Early Paleoindian Economies of Eastern North America, edited by Kenneth Tankersley and Barry Isaac, pp. 163–216. Research in Economic Anthropology Supplement 5. JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 1995 Paleoindian Interaction Networks in the Eastern Woodlands. In Native American Interaction: Multiscalar Analyses and Interpretations in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Michael S. Nassaney and Kenneth E. Sassaman, pp. 1–26. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 1996 Models of Paleoindian and Early Archaic Settlement in the Southeastern United States. In The Paleoinidan and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by David G. Anderson and Kenneth E. Sassaman, pp. 29–57. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G. 2004 Paleoindian Occupations in the Southeastern United States. In New Perspectives on the First Americans, edited by Bradley T. Lepper and Robson Bonnichsen, pp. 119–128. Center for the Study of the First Americans, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Hanson, Glen T. 1988 Early Archaic Settlement in the Southeastern United States: A Case Study from the Savannah River Valley. American Antiquity 53:262–286.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Smith, Steven C. 2003 Archaeology, History, and Predictive Modeling: Research at Fort Polk, 1972–2002. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Baker, Richard G., and Wain, Kirk 1985 Pollen Records from the Great Plains and Central United States. In Pollen Records of Late-Quaternary North American Sediments, edited by Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr. and Richard G. Holloway, pp. 191–203. The American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas.Google Scholar
Ballenger, Jesse A. M. 2001 Dalton Settlement in the Arkoma Basin of Eastern Oklahoma. Robert E. Bell Monographs in Anthropology, No. 2. Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, Norman.Google Scholar
Bamforth, Douglas B. 1986 Technological Efficiency and Tool Curation. American Antiquity 51:38–50.Google Scholar
Bamforth, Douglas B. 2002 High-Tech Foragers? Folsom and Later Paleoindian Technology on the Great Plains. Journal of World Prehistory 16:55–98.Google Scholar
Bamforth, Douglas B., Becker, Mark, and Hudson, Jean 2005 Intrasite Spatial Analyses, Ethnoarchaeology, and Paleoindian Land-Use on the Great Plains: The Allen Site. American Antiquity 70:561–580.Google Scholar
Banks, Larry D. 1990 From Mountain Peaks to Alligator Stomachs: A Review ofLithic Sources in the Trans-Mississippi South, the Southern Plains, and Adjacent Southwest. Oklahoma Anthropological Society Memoir No. 4, Norman.Google Scholar
Baxter, Michael J. 1994 Exploratory Multivariate Analysis in Archaeology. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Bement, Leland C. 1999 Bison Hunting at Cooper Site Where Lightning Bolts Drew Thundering Herds. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Bement, Leland C. 2002 Pickin’ Up the Pieces: Folsom Projectile Point Reshaprening Technology. In Folsom Technology and Life-ways, edited by John E. Clark and Michael B. Collins, pp. 135–140. Lithic Technology, Special Publications No. 4, Tulsa.Google Scholar
Bement, Leland C., Carter, Brian J., Varney, R.A., Cummings, Linda Scott, and Byron Sudbury, J. 2007 Paleo-environmental Reconstruction and Biostratigraphy, Oklahoma Panhandle, USA. Quaternary International 169–170:39–50.Google Scholar
Binford, Lewis R. 1979 Organization and Formation Processes: Looking at Curated Technologies. Journal of Anthropological Research 35:255–272.Google Scholar
Binford, Lewis R. 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails: Hunter Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 45:4–20.Google Scholar
Blackmar, Jeanette M. 2001 Regional Variability in Clovis, Folsom, and Cody Land Use. Plains Anthropologist 46:65–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnichsen, Robson, Stanford, Dennis, and Fastook, James L. 1987 Environmental Change and Developmental History of Human Adaptive Patterns; The Paleoindian Case. In North America and Adjacent Oceans During the Last Glaciation: The Geology of North America, Vol. K-3, edited by William F. Ruddiman and H.E. Wright, Jr., pp. 403–424. Geological Society of America, Boulder.Google Scholar
Bousman, C. Brit 1998 Paleoenvironmental Change in Central Texas: The Palynological Evidence. Plains Anthropologist 43:201–219.Google Scholar
Bousman, C. Brit, Baker, Barry W., and Kerr, Anne C. 2004 Paleoindian Archaeology in Texas. In The Prehistory of Texas, edited by Timothy K. Perttula, pp. 15–97. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Bradbury, Andrew P., and Carr, Phillip J. 2003 A Method for Quantifying Size and Shape Dimensions of North American Hafted Bifaces. In Lithic Analysis at the Millenium, edited by Norah Moloney and Michael J. Shott, pp. 173–187. Institute of Archaeology, London.Google Scholar
Bryant, Vaughn M. Jr., and Holloway, Richard G. (editors) 1985 A Late-Quaternary Paleoenvironmental Record of Texas: An Overview of the Pollen Evidence. In Pollen Records of Late-Quaternary North Amarican Sediments, pp. 39–70. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Briggs 2006 An Analysis of Folsom Projectile Point Resharpening Using Quantitative Comparisons of Form and Allometry. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:185–199.Google Scholar
Cable, John S. 1996 Haw River Revisited: Implications for Modeling Terminal Late Glacial and Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems in the Southeast. In The Paleoinidan and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by David G. Anderson and Kenneth E. Sassaman, pp. 107–148. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Clark, Peter U., Marshall, Shawn J., Clarke, Garry K.C., Hostetler, Steven W., Licciardi, Joseph M., and Teller, James T. 2001 Freshwater Forcing of Abrupt Climate Change During the Last Glaciation. Science 293:283–287.Google Scholar
Daniel, I. Randolf Jr. 2001 Stone Raw Material Availability and Early Archaic Settlement in the Southeastern United States. American Antiquity 66:237–265.Google Scholar
Duffield, Lathel F. 1963 The Wolfshead Site: An Archaic-Neo-American Site in San Augustine County, Texas. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 34:83–141.Google Scholar
Ellis, Christopher, Goodyear, Albert C., Morse, Dan F., and Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1998 Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition in Eastern North America. Quaternary International 49/50:151–160.Google Scholar
Ensor, H. Blaine 1986 San Patrice and Dalton Affinities on the Central and Western Gulf Coastal Plain. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 57:69–81.Google Scholar
Fredlund, Glen G., and Tieszen, Larry L. 1997 Calibrating Grass Phytoligh Assemblages in Climatic Terms: Application to Late Pleistocene Assemblages from Kansas and Nebraska Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 136:199–211.Google Scholar
Friis-Hansen, Jan 1990 Mesolithic Cutting Arrows: Functional Analysis of Arrows Used in the Hunting of Large Game. Antiquity 64:494–504.Google Scholar
Gardner, William M. 1976 Paleo-Indian to Early Archaic: Continuity and Change in Eastern North America during the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. In Habitats, Humains Anterieurs a L’Holocene en Amerique, edited by Jonathan B. Griffin, pp. 19–46. IXth International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Science, Nice, France.Google Scholar
Geiger, Carey L. 1980 Survey of Selected Sites in the Leaf River Floodplain, Perry County. Mississippi Archaeology 15:8–25.Google Scholar
Gillam, J. Christopher 1996 A View of Paleoindian Settlement from Crowley’s Ridge. Plains Anthropologist 41:273–286.Google Scholar
Gilberti, Joseph A. 1995 San Patrice and Related Early Tool Assemblage from the Beaumont Gravel Pit Site (22PE504) A Late Paleoindian Site in South Mississippi. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.Google Scholar
Goodyear, Albert C. 1989 A Hypothesis for the Use of Cryptocrystalline Raw Materials Among Paleoindian Groups of North America. In Eastern Paleoindian Lithic Resource Use, edited by Christopher J. Ellis and Jonathon C. Lothrop, pp. 1–9. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Goodyear, Albert C. 1995 The Brand Site: A Techno-Functional Study of a Dalton Site in Northeast Arkansas. Originally published 1974. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 7, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Graham, Alan, and Heimsch, Charles 1960 Pollen Studies of Some Texas Peat Deposits. Ecology 41:751–763.Google Scholar
Graham, Russel W. 1987 Late Quaternary Mammalian Faunas and Paleoenvironments of the Southwestern Plains of the United States. In Late Quaternary Mammalian Biogeography and Environments of the Great Plains and Prairies, edited by Russle W. Graham, Holmes S. Smeken, Jr., and Mary Ann Graham, pp. 24–87. Illinois State Museum, Springfield.Google Scholar
Graham, Russel W., and Lundelius, Ernest L. Jr. 1984 Coevolutionary Disequilibrium and Pleistocene Extinctions. In Quaternary Extinctions, a Prehistoric Revolution, edited by Paul S. Martin and Richard G. Klein, pp. 223–249. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Griffing, David L. 1994 The Baskin Site, An Early Archaic Site in Franklin Parish. Louisiana Archaeology 21:103–125.Google Scholar
Hajic, Edwin R., Mandel, Rolfe D., and Arthur Bettis, E. III 2000 Stratigraphic and Paleoenvironmental Investigations. In The 1999 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426), edited by Neal H. Lopinot, Jack H. Ray, and Michael D. Conner, pp. 26–36. Special Publication No. 3. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield.Google Scholar
Hester, Thomas R., and Newcomb, Sam W. 1990 Projectile Points of the San Patrice Horizon on the Southern Plains of Texas. Current Research in the Pleistocene 7:17–19.Google Scholar
Hofman, Jack L. 1992 Recognition and Interpretation of Folsom Technological Variability on the Southern Plains. In Ice Age Hunters of the Rockies, edited by Dennis J. Stanford and Jane S. Day, pp. 193–229. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Hofman, Jack L. 1999 Unbounded Hunters: Folsom Bison Hunting on the Southern Plains Circa 10,500 BP, the Lithic Evidence. In Bison Subsistence Through Time From Paleolithic to Paleoindian Times, edited by Jacques Jaubert and Jean-Philip Brugal, pp. 383–415. CNRS and Mistere de la Culture, de la Region Midi-Pyrenes, Toulouse, France.Google Scholar
Hofman, Jack L., and Todd, Lawrence C. 2001 Tyranny in the Archaeological Record of Specialized Hunters. In People and Wildlife in Northern North America: Essays in Honor of R. Dale Guthrie, edited by S. Craig Gerlach and Maribeth S. Murray, pp. 200–215. BAR International Series 944. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Holloway, Richard G. 1994 Ferndale Bog: A Record of Late Pleistocene-Holocene Climate and Vegetational Change. In Past Environments and Prehistory at McGee Creek Reservoir, Atoka County, Oklahoma, edited by C. Reid Ferring, pp. 9–27. Volume V, Part 4 of the McGee Creek Archaeological Project Reports, Institute of Applied Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton.Google Scholar
Howard, Calvin D. 1995 Projectile Point and Hafting Design Review. North American Archaeologist 16:291–301.Google Scholar
Hughen, Konrad A., Southon, John R., Lehman, Scott J., and Overpeck, Jonathan T. 2000 Synchronous Radiocarbon and Climate Shifts during the Last Deglaciation. Science 290:1951–1954 Google Scholar
Hughes, Jack T., and Willey, Patrick S. 1978 Archeology at MacKenzie Reservoir. Archeological Survey Report 24, Office of the State Archeologist, Texas Historical Commission, Austin.Google Scholar
Humphrey, John D., and Reid Ferring, C. 1994 Stable Isotopic Evidence for Latest Pleistocene and Holocene Climatic Change in North-Central Texas. Quaternary Research 41:200–213.Google Scholar
Hurst, Stance 2007 Social Identity Formation of Early Holocene Foragers on the Southern Plains. Dissertation in preparation for defense, University of Oklahoma, Norman.Google Scholar
Jennings, Thomas A. 2008 San Patrice Technology and Mobility across the Plains-Woodland Border. Oklahoma Anthropological Society Memoir No. 12. Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, Norman, in press.Google Scholar
Jeter, Marvin D., Rose, Jerome C., Williams, Ishmael G. Jr., and Harmon, Anna M. 1989 Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Lower Mississippi River Valley and Trans-Mississippi South in Arkansas and Louisiana. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 37. Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Johnson, LeRoy Jr. 1989 Great Plains Interlopers in the Eastern Woodlands during Late Paleoindian Times, the Evidence from Oklahoma, Texas, and Areas Close By. Office of the State Archeologist Report 36, Texas Historical Commission, Austin.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L. 1983 Hunter-Gatherer Mobility Strategies. Journal of Anthropological Research 39:277–306.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L. 1988 The Three Sides of a Biface. American Antiquity 53:717–734.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L. 1992 Mobility/Sedentism: Concepts, Archaeological Measures, and Effects. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:43–66.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L., and Todd, Lawrence C. 1988 Coming into the Country: Early Paleoindian Hunting and Mobility. American Antiquity 53:231–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, Anne C. 2000 Systematic Analysis of Unfluted Lanceolate Projectile Points. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Kimball, Larry R. 1996 Early Archaic Settlement and Technology: Lessons from Tellico. In The Paleoinidan and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by David G. Anderson and Kenneth E. Sassaman, pp. 149–186. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Kuhn, Steven L. 1994 A Formal Approach to the Design Assembly of Mobile Toolkits. American Antiquity 59:426–442.Google Scholar
LaBelle, Jason M. 2005 Hunter-gatherer Foraging Variability during the Early Holocene of the Central Plains of North America. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas.Google Scholar
Larson, Donald A., Bryant, Vaughn M. Jr., and Patty, Tom S. 1972 Pollen Analysis of a Central Texas Bog. The American Midland Naturalist 88(2):358–367.Google Scholar
Lopinot, Neal H., Ray, Jack H., and Conner, Michael D. (editors) 1998 The 1997 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426) in Southwest Missouri. Special Publication No. 2. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield.Google Scholar
Lopinot, Neal H., Ray, Jack H., and Conner, Michael D. (editors) 2000 The 1999 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426). Special Publication No. 3. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield.Google Scholar
McMillan, R. Bruce, and Klippel, Walter E. 1981 Post-glacial Environmental Change and Hunting-gathering Societies of the Southern Prairie Peninsula. Journal of Archaeological Science 8:215–245.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 1989 Was Stone Exchanged Among Eastern North American Paleoindians? In Eastern Paleoindian Lithic Resource Use, edited by Christopher J. Ellis and Jonathon C. Lothrop, pp. 11–39. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 2002 What Do You Do When No One’s Been There Before? Thoughts on the Exploration and Colonization of New Lands. In The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, edited by Nina G. Jablonski, pp. 27–58. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J. 2006 Folsom: New Archaeolgoical Investigations of a Classic Paleoindian Bison Kill. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Meltzer, David J., and Smith, Bruce D. 1986 Paleoindain and Early Archaic Subsistence Strategies in Eastern North America. In Foraging, Collecting, and Harvesting: Archaic Period Subsistence and Settlement in the Eastern Woodlands, edited by Sarah Neusius, pp. 1–30. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Mirkin, Boris 2005 Clustering for Data Mining: A Data Recovery Approach. Chapman & Hall, New York.Google Scholar
Morse, Dan F. 1975 Paleoindian in the Land of Opportunity: Preliminary Report on Excavations at the Sloan Site (3GE94). In The Cache River Archeological Project: An Experiment in Contract Archeology, edited by Michael B. Schiffer and John H. House, pp. 93–102. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Research Series No. 8, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Morse, Dan F. 1977 Dalton Settlement Systems: Reply to Schiffer (2). Plains Anthropologist 22:149–158.Google Scholar
Morse, Dan F. 1997 Sloan: A Paleoindian Dalton Cemetery in Arkansas. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.Google Scholar
Morse, Dan F., Anderson, David G., and Goodyear, Albert C. III 1996 The Pleistocene-Holocene Transition in the Eastern United States. In Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition, edited by Lawrence G. Straus, Berit Valentin Eriksen, Jon M. Erlandson, and David R.Yesner, pp. 319–338. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Morse, Dan F, and Morse, Phyllis A. 1983 Archaeology in the Central Mississippi Valley. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Nelson, Margaret C. 1991 The Study of Technological Organization. Archaeological Method and Theory 3, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 57–100. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Pitblado, Bonnie L. 2003 Late Paleoindian Occupation of the Southern Rocky Mountains: Early Holocene Projectile Points and Land Use in the High Country. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Prentice, I. Colin, Bartlcin, Patrick J., and Webb, Thompson III 1991 Vegetation and Climate Change in Eastern North America Since the Last Glacial Maximum. Ecology 72:2038–2056.Google Scholar
Ray, Jack H. 1998a Cultural Components. In The 1997 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426) in Southwest Missouri, edited by Neal H. Lopinot, Jack H. Ray, and Michael D. Conner, pp. 111–220. Special Publication No. 2. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield.Google Scholar
Ray, Jack H. 1998b Chert Resource Availability and Utilization. In The 1997 Excavations at the Big Eddy Site (23CE426) in Southwest Missouri, edited by Neal H. Lopinot, Jack H. Ray and Michael D. Conner, pp. 221–265. Special Publication No. 2. Center for Archaeological Research, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri.Google Scholar
Redder, Albert J. 1985 Horn Shelter Number 2: The South End, A Preliminary Report. Central Texas Archaeologist 10:37–65.Google Scholar
Schiffer, Michael B. 1975 Some Further Comments on the Dalton Settlement Hypothesis. In The Cache River Archeological Project: An Experiment in Contract Archeology, edited by Michael B. Schiffer and John H. House, pp. 103–112. Arkansas Archeological Survey, Research Series No. 8, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Sellards, Elias, H. 1952 Early Man in America, A Study in Prehistory. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Shott, Michael J. 1989 Technological Organization in Great Lakes Paleoindian Assemblages. In Eastern Paleoindian Lithic Resource Use, edited by Christopher J. Ellis and Jonathon C. Lothrop, pp. 221–237. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Story, Dee Ann 1990 Cultural History of the Native Americans. In Story, DA et al, eds., The Archaeology and Bioarchaeology of the Gulf Coastal Plain Vol. 1. Research Series No. 38, Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville.Google Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1998 Variation in the Early Paleoindian Economies of Late Pleistocene Eastern North America. American Antiquity 63:7–20.Google Scholar
Toomey, Rickard S. III, Blum, Michael D., and Valastro, Salvatore Jr. 1993 Late Quaternary Climates and Environments of the Edwards Plateau, Texas. Global and Planetary Change 7:299–320.Google Scholar
Turner, Ellen Sue, and Hester, Thomas R. 1999 Stone Artifacts of Texas Indians. Second Edition 1993, reprinted 1999. Texas Monthly Field Guide Series, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.Google Scholar
Webb, Clarence H., Shiner, Joel L., and Wayne Roberts, E. 1971 The John Pearce Site (16CD56): A San Patrice Site in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. Bulletin of the Texas Archaeological Society 42:1–49.Google Scholar
Webb, Thompson III, Shuman, Bryan, and Williams, John W. 2004 Climatically Forced Vegetation Dynamics in Eastern North America during the late Quaternary Period. In The Quaternary Period in the United States, edited by Alan R. Gillespie, Stephen C. Porter, and Brian F. Atwater, pp. 459–478. Elsevier, New York.Google Scholar
Wheat, Joe B. 1972 The Olsen-Chubbuck Site: A Paleo-lndian Bison Kill. Society for American Archaeology, Memoir 26. Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Wormington, H. M. 1957 Ancient Man in North America. Denver Museum of Natural History Popular Series 4. Denver.Google Scholar
Wyckoff, Don G. 1993 Gravel Sources of Knappable Alibates Silicified Dolomite. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 8:35–58.Google Scholar
Wyckoff, Don G. 2006 Recent Lithic Technological Studies on the Southern Plains and Adjacent Regions Part I: Identifying and Sourcing Raw Materials. Lithic Technology 30–2:89–106.Google Scholar