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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2015
A historian, soldier, diplomat, journalist, poet, translator, and politician, Bartolomé Mitre (1821-1906) stood out among the most renowned figures of late nineteenth century Latin America. “He is a full handsome man,” declared one of his many European admirers in 1861, “of very eloquent appearance with a fine forehead and thoughtful face. He is a poet and a scholar, and looks altogether too refined and gentlemanly to be mixed up with the dirty doings of second-rate politicians.” Forty years later, Carlos Pellegrini, a former president of Argentina and one of Mitre's leading political opponents, described him as “the most powerful caudillo of our time” who possessed “an aura of personal valor that he imposed on the multitude.” To an American hagiographer writing in the 1940s, Mitre was a “poet in action,” and a “heart in unison with his time and his country.… In the unification of his country, Mitre displayed the astuteness of a Cavour and the ardency of a Garibaldi.”
This article forms a preliminary part of a broader political history of Argentina in the period 1853-1916. I gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Endowment for the Humanities and research assistants Erik Ching, Karen Mead, and Fernando Rocchi.
1 Hinchliff, Thomas Woodbine, South American Sketches; or a Visit to Rio Janeiro, the Organ Mountains, La Plata, and the Paraná (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green, 1863), p. 84.Google Scholar
2 Quoted in Astengo, Agustín Rivero, Juárez Celman, 1844–1909. Estudio histórico y documental de una época argentina (Buenos Aires: Guillermo Kraft, 1944), p. 153.Google Scholar For a recent assessment of Mitre’s career see Shumway, Nicolas, The Invention of Argentina (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 193–238.Google Scholar
3 From blurb and foreword of Hole, Myra Cadwalder, Ph.D., Bartolomé Mitre: A Poet in Action (New York: Hispanic Institute in the United States, 1947).Google Scholar
4 The most complete account of Mitre’s career exploring his relationship with Argentine Liberalism, and the content of Liberalism, is José, S. Campobassi, Mitre y su época (Buenos Aires: Editorial de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1980).Google Scholar This work suffers from an absence of footnotes. Typical of the more uncritical works on Mitre is Newton, Jorge, Mitre. Una vida al servicio de la libertad (Buenos Aires: Claridad, 1965).Google Scholar Several distinguished works by Tulio Halperín Donghi address Argentine Liberalism and Mitre’s position in that movement. See Proyecto y construcción de una nación (1846–1880), 2d ed. (Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1995); “El Liberalismo argentino y el Liberalismo mexicano: dos destinos divergentes,” in El espejo de la historia (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1987), pp. 144–164. See also Mitre, Bartolomé, Profesión de fe, Levene, Ricardo H., ed. (Buenos Aires: Editorial de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1956),Google Scholar a work written in 1852 that summarized Mitre’s main political and economic ideas; Katra, William H., The Argentine generation of 1837. Echeverría, Sarmiento, Mitre (Madison: Associated University Presses, 1996);Google Scholar Shumway, Invention of Argentina. Many of these themes are explored in brief in Rock, David, “The European Revolutions of 1848 in the Rio de la Plata,” Paper presented at London University, November 1998.Google Scholar Institutional aspects of state building in Argentina are addressed in Oszlak, Oscar, La formación del estado argentino (Buenos Aires: Belgrano, 1982).Google Scholar Liberalism and state building is examined comparatívely ín Liberals, Politics, and Power. State Formation in Nineteenth Century Latin America, Peloso, Vincent C. and Tenenbaum, Barbara A., eds. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996).Google Scholar
5 The rebellions occurred in 1874, 1880, 1890, and 1893.
6 Examples were the late 1870s when Mitre regained prominence following his “conciliation” with President Nicolás Avellaneda, but then found his bid for support in the provinces frustrated by General Julio A. Roca and the “League of Governors.” A broadly similar pattern occurred in the early 1890s following the acuerdo of 1891.
7 Alberdi, Juan Bautista, Historia de la guerra del Paraguay (Buenos Aires: Ediciones de la Patria Grande, 1962), p. 177.Google Scholar
8 For background see Scobie, James R., La lucha por la consolidación de la nacionalidad argentina, 1852–1862 (Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1964).Google Scholar
9 Mitre’s manifesto as governor issued in May 1860 is reprinted in la Vega, Urbano de, El general Mitre (Historia). Contribución al estudio de la organización nacional y a la historia militar del país (Buenos Aires, 1960), p. 89.Google Scholar
10 The term “Liberal” became established in broad usage following the establishment of the Club Libertad in 1857 that gave rise to the Partido Liberal de Buenos Aires also known as the Partido de la Libertad. On the Federalists see Rock, David, “The Collapse of the Federalists: Rural Revolt in Argentina, 1863–1876,” Estudios lnterdisciplinarios de América Latina (Latina) y el Caribe, Vol. 9, No. 2, July-December, 1998, 5–20.Google Scholar (Using additional materials, this article also contains accounts of the Peñaloza rebellion of 1863 and the Saá/Varela rebellion of 1866–67.) Two essays in Carmagnani, Marcello, Federalismos Latinoamericanos: México, Brasil, Argentina (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económico, 1993)Google Scholar are devoted to Argentina. See José C. Chiaramonte, “El federalismo argentino en la primera mitad del siglo xix,” and Natalio R. Botana, “El federalismo liberal en Argentina: 1852–1930.” The former deals with the predecessors of the Federalists mentioned in this article. The latter shows the development of federal ideas among groups formerly identified with the unitarists.
11 Rock, David, “Civil War in Nineteenth Century Argentina: San Juan, 1860–1861,” in Violencia social y conflicto civil: América Latina siglo XVIII-XÍX, edited by MacFarlane, Anthony and Wiesbron, Marianne. Amsterdam: Asociación de Historiadores de América Latina y el Caribe, Vol. 9, No. 2, July-December, 1998, 5–20.Google Scholar
12 Parish to Russell, 18 May 1861, FO 6–235.
13 Mitre was among the signatories to the Pact of November 1859 in which this condition was laid down. See Diario de Sesiones de la Convención del Senado de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Imprenta del “Comercio del Piata,” 1860), pp. 114–116.
14 Martin de Moussy, V., Description Géographique et Statistique de la Confédération Argentine, vol. 3 (Paris: Librairie de Fermin Didot Frères, Fils et Cie., 1864, 86).Google Scholar For a lengthy account of these political battles see Carranza, Arturo B., La cuestión capital de la República, 1826–1887, vol. 3, 1862 (Buenos Aires: Rosso, 1928).Google Scholar A summary of the various federalization projects between June and October appears on pp. lxxxvi-lxxxvii.
15 Moussy, Martin de, Confédération Argentine, pp. 29–30.Google Scholar
16 On Alsina’s career see Yaben, Jacinto R., Biografías argentinas y sudamericanas (Buenos Aires: Metrópolis, 1938), vol. 1, pp. 118–120.Google Scholar A brief contemporary description of Alsina appears in M.G. and Mulhall, E.T., Handbook of the River Plate; comprising Buenos Ayres, The Upper Provinces, Banda Oriental, and Paraguay (Buenos Aires: Standard Printing Office, 1869), pp. 125–126.Google Scholar See also Sánchez, Enrique, Biografía del Dr. Don Adolfo Alsina. Recopilación de sus discursos y escritos (Buenos Aires: La Tribuna, 1878).Google Scholar
17 Spanish minister to Madrid, no. 42, 26 March 1868, H 1349, Archive of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Madrid.
18 The origin of the labels is discussed in El Nacional, 2 May 1866.
19 Mitre had strongest links with Italian merchants. He was popular among the British although their great favorite was Norberto de la Riestra, a Spanish-born merchant and financier who was educated in England and worked for a period in Liverpool.
20 Yaben, , Biografías, p. 120.Google Scholar
21 El Nacional, 11 July 1866.
22 El Nacional, 16 March 1864 on frontier issues; Stuart to Stanley, no. 114, 16 October 1869, FO 118–135 on port issues.
23 La Nación Argentina, 3 January 1864. Quoted in García Belsunce, César A., Pavón y la crisis de la Confederación (Buenos Aires: Equipos de Investigación Histórica, 1965), p. 42.Google Scholar
24 The election is reported in El Nacional, 13 February 1864.
25 Thornton to Russell, no. 18, 24 February 1864, FO 6–250.
26 El Nacional, 23 February 1864.
27 Astengo (the Italian minister) to Rome, no. 4, 24 April 1864, Pacco 867. (Italian Foreign Ministry Archive).
28 Thornton to Russell, no. 36, 25 April 1864, FO 6–250. There were only 11 parishes in Buenos Aires at this point.
29 Bernard, Lina Beck, Rio Parana. Cinq Années de Séjour dans la République Argentine (Paris: Grassart, Librairie Editeur, 1864), p. 106.Google Scholar
30 In February 1864 there were 2,100 voters. See El Nacional, 15 February 1864.
31 Sabato, Hilda, “Citizenship, Political Parties, and the Formation of the Public Sphere in Buenos Aires, 1850s–1880s,” Past and Present, 136, August 1992, 139–163,Google Scholar in which the figure of 10 per cent is submitted as the proportion of voters to the Argentine male population.
32 Original data published in El Nacional, 16 December 1865.
33 El Nacional, 16 December 1868. My findings from these data in the mid-1860s largely correspond to those of Hilda Sabato. If the voting electorate represented around 10 per cent of the men eligible to vote, the high proportion of comerciantes in my data suggests a more independent electorate than Sabato’s whose voters are sometimes depicted as members of the poorer classes controlled as clients by patrons. Further, Sabato views elections as a secondary mode of political participation alongside demonstrations and membership of associations. I argue, as the text indicates, that the importance of elections varied. As a decisive struggle for control over Buenos Aires between Mitre and his opponents the elections of the mid-1860s became crucially important. See Sabato, Hilda, La política en las calles. Entre el voto y la movilización. Buenos Aires 1862–1880 (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1998).Google Scholar (Elections are discussed extensively on pp. 82–175). Recent research on elections in Buenos Aires before 1900 is examined in Alonso, Paula, “La reciente historia política de la Argentina del ochenta al centenario,” Anuario del Instituto de Estudios Sociales, 13, 1998, 393–418.Google Scholar A broader study of elections, not in this period, is Annino, Antonio, Historia de las elecciones en Iberoamérica, siglo xix. De la formación del espacio política nacional (Montevideo: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1995).Google Scholar
34 El Nacional, 15 February 1866.
35 Ford to Clarendon, no. 34, 3 Mayl866, FO 118–120.
36 El Nacional, 22 and 26 March 1866.
37 El Nacional, 11 May 1866.
38 El Nacional, 7 February 1867.
39 Gould to Stanley, no. 44, 14 April 1868, FO 118–129.
40 See Taboada, Gaspar, “Los Taboada.” Luchas de la organización nacional, vol. 1 (Buenos Aires: López, 1929), p. 83;Google Scholar also vol. 2, p. 19, for a biography of Antonino Taboada based on an obituary in La Nación, 6 March 1883. A list of the governors of Santiago del Estero appears in Fazio, Lorenzo, Memoria descriptiva de la provincia de Santiago del Estero (Buenos Aires: Compañía Sud-Americana de Billetes de Banco, 1889), p. 462.Google Scholar
41 El Nacional, 10 September 1860.
42 El Nacional, 26 July 1861.
43 La Prensa, 13 October 1871.
44 Hutchinson, Thomas J., Buenos Ayres and Argentine Gleanings: with Extracts from a Diary of Salado Exploration in 1862 and 1863 (London: Edward Stanford, 1865), pp. 190, 215 and 226.Google Scholar
45 See El Nacional, 4 January 1875. On El Bracho see also Taboada, , Los Taboada, p. 527,Google Scholar in which it is described as a military colony visited by Thomas Hutchinson.
46 Rock, Rural Revolt.
47 Gordon to Thornton, 6 September 1863, FO 6–245.
48 Thornton to Russell, no. 62, 21 July 1863, FO 6–245.
49 Sandes became infamous for the executions he ordered after defeating the montonera in the battle of Las Playas in June 1863. However, a laudatory account of his career appears in Sarmiento, Domingo F., Aldao y El Chacho (Buenos Aires, n.d.), p. 147.Google Scholar
50 Martínez to Mitre, 14 and 24 January 1863, Archivo del General Mitre (hereinafter referrred to as AGM), vol. 12, Presidencia de la Nación (Buenos Aires, La Nación, 1911), p. 269.
51 Letter to Marcos Paz, quoted in Cárdenas, Felipe, El Chacho. Vida, muerte, resurrección (Buenos Aires: Colección Liberación, 1974), p. 58.Google Scholar
52 Peñaloza to Paunero, 31 July 1862, AGM, vol. 11, Pacificación y Reorganización Nacional, pp. 186 and 187.
53 Quoted in Sarmiento, , Aldao y el Chacho, p. 109.Google Scholar
54 El Nacional, 25 June 1863. Additional material on El Chacho A summary of Peñaloza’s background appears in El Nacional, 24 November 1863. For additional material see Cárdenas, , El Chacho, pp. 16–21.Google Scholar Comisión Central de Homenaje, Angel Vicente Peñaloza (Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1969), contains several essays by historians from the western provinces of Argentina. The sympathetic Alberdi called Peñaloza the “Garibaldi of La Rioja.” Sarmiento called him “a semi-barbarous peasant, with his rough riojano accent” ( Sarmiento, , Aldao y El Chacho, p. 63).Google Scholar A recent assessment of Peñaloza appears in Fuente, Ariel de la, Caudillo and Gaucho Politics in the Argentine State-Formation Process: La Rioja, 1853–1870, Ph. D. Dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1995, pp. 125–127, 144–149 and 179–194.Google Scholar
55 “La montonera” is a collective noun referring to the irregular troops composed of gauchos, particularly in western Argentina. The terms “un montonero” or “los montoneros” refer to an individual or persons who formed part of a montonera. Domingo F. Sarmiento defined montonera as the equivalent of guerrilla, “a participant in a civil war, outside regular forms of warfare, carried out by country people (paisanos) rather than soldiers.” Sarmiento, , Aldao y El Chacho, p. 189.Google Scholar
56 El Nacional, 23 September 1863.
57 El Nacional, TA November 1863.
58 El Nacional, 15 December 1863. (The account of Peñaloza’s death appeared on 25 November).
59 Sarmiento, , Aldao y El Chacho, p. 191.Google Scholar
60 Arredondo to Mitre 22 December 1863, AGM vol. 26, Presidencia de la República, p. 195.
61 El Nacional, 21 December 1868. In this period the diatribes against the montonera had little racial content; the dichotomy lay not in race but in “civilization” and “barbarism.”
62 Mitre to Santa Ana, 24 December 1863, AGM vol. 26, Presidencia de la República, p. 45.
63 Thornton to Russell, no. 25, 27 April 1863, FO 6–245.
64 ElNacional, 15 May 1863.
65 El Nacional, 26 November 1868.
66 Differences arose between the two men in the early 1850s when Alberdi supported Urquiza and Mitre became Urquiza’s opponent.
67 Alberdi, , La guerra del Paraguay, 104.Google Scholar “The country’s foreign wars … are civil wars at root in the outward form of foreign wars.”
68 El Nacional, 9 December 1864.
69 Sarmiento to Elizalde, 21 January 1867, in Sarmiento, D. F.. Obras de Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, vol. 34, Cuestiones Americanas (Buenos Aires: Mariano Moreno, 1900), p. 245.Google Scholar
70 El Nacional, 31 March 1865.
71 El Nacional, 19 June 1865.
72 El Nacional, 9 December 1864.
73 Un Gefe Argentino. Apreciaciones de la Guerra al Paraguay. Published in El Nacional, 3 November 1866.
74 El Nacional, 10 November and 27 December 1865.
75 El Nacional, 7 and 19 February 1866.
76 Ford to Clarendon, no. 8, 15 February 1866, FO 118–120.
77 El Nacional, 8 May 1866.
78 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, no. 14, 9 April 1866. Pacco 903.
79 Ford to Clarendon, no. 46, 29 May 1866, FO 118–120.
80 Garmendia, José I., Recuerdos de la guerra del Paraguay (Buenos Aires: Peuser, 1890), pp. 37, 43 and 73.Google Scholar
81 Quoted in Kolinski, Charles J., Independence or Death. The Story of the Paraguayan War (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1965), p. 69.Google Scholar
82 “La guerra de los aliados,” reproduced in El Nacional, 3 and 4 April 1866.
83 See El Nacional, 16 May 1866.
84 El Nacional, 22 June 1866.
85 El Nacional, 11 July 1866.
86 Ford to Stanley, no. 2, 12 August 1866, FO 118–120.
87 Mitre to Gelly y Obés, 23 September 1866, AGM, vol. 3, Guerra del Paraguay, p. 97.
88 Mitre’s report appears in El Nacional, 29 September 1866.
89 Mitre to Gelly y Obés, 23 September 1866, AGM, vol. 3, Guerra del Paraguay, p. 97.
90 “Apreciaciones de la Guerra al Paraguay.”
91 Matthew to Stanley, no. 6, 11 October 1867, FO 118–124.
92 Gould to Matthew, no. 31, 26 April 1867, FO 118–124.
93 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, no. 25, 25 November 1866, vol. 6, Pacco 903.
94 Gould to Matthew, no. 31, 26 April 1867, FO 118–124.
95 Chapperon to Astengo, no. 1,2 February 1866., Pacco 867.
96 El Nacional, 28 April 1869.
97 Astengo to Foreign Ministry, no. 58, n.d. (1869), Pacco 1248.
98 An example appears in El Nacional, 21 July 1865.
99 Consul Chapperon to Rome,-5 December 1865, vol. 6, Pacco 803.
100 Pomer, León, Cinco años de guerra civil en la Argentina, unpublished manuscript, p. 53.Google Scholar
101 El Nacional.14 October 1865.
102 Gordon to Stuart, 25 June 1869, FO 118–136.
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104 Enclosed in Stuart to Stanley, no. 25, 28 September 1868, FO 118–125.
105 Chapperon to Rome, 20 September 1865, vol. 6, Pacco 803.
106 Astengo to Rome, no. 16, 10 May 1866, voi. 6, Pacco 867.
107 Chapperon to Rome, no. 21, 24 September 1866, vol. 6, Pacco 867.
108 Chapperon to Rome, no. 23, 10 October 1866, vol. 6, Pacco 867.
109 Quoted in Chapperon to Rome, no. 27, 27 December 1866, vol. 6, Pacco 867.
110 Matthew to Ramsay, no. 9, 26 November 1866, FO 118–121.
111 El Nacional, 23 December 1866.
112 Chapperon to Rome, no. 25, 25 November 1866, vol. 6, Pacco 867.
113 Matthew to Stanley, no. 8, 27 January 1867, FO 118–124.
114 The prior printing of the manifesto in Chile was reported by the acting governor of La Rioja on December 22 1866. See San Román to Còrdova, in Matienzo, Roberto Zavalía, Felipe Varela a través de la documentación del Archivo Histórico de Tucumán (Tucumán, 1967), p. 14.Google Scholar
115 The manifesto appeared in El Nacional, 4 January 1867.
116 El Nacional, 23 January 1867. There was no specification when the alleged bribe was paid. In one account, Varela received “2,000 patacones” from acting president Marcos Paz in December 1865 in an attempt to enlist his military services. Luna, Felix, Los caudillos (Buenos Aires: Jorge Alvarez, 1966), p. 223.Google Scholar
117 El Nacional, 28 January 1867.
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120 Astengo to Rome, no. 2, 10 January 1867, vol. 6, Pacco 867.
121 Elizalde to Mitre, 18 January 1867, AGM, vol 5, Guerra del Paraguay, p. 155.
122 Paz to Mitre, 16 January 1867, AGM, vol. 5, Guerra del Paraguay, p. 183.
123 Mitre arrived on 26 February and formally resumed his office as president a few days later. El Nacional, 11 March 1867.
124 Matthew to Stanley, no. 8, 27 January 1867, FO 118–124.
125 El Nacional, 10 April 1867. The Saá brothers had earlier lived for several years among the Ranquel Indians south of San Luis, and were able to recruit Indian fighters. See Luna, , Caudillos, p. 229.Google Scholar
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134 Astengo to Rome, no. 13, 14 April 1868, vol. 6, Pacco 903.
135 Astengo to Rome, no. 68, 12 June 1868, vol. 6, Pacco 903.
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137 El Nacional, 14 October 1868.
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142 Matthew to Stanley, no. 31, 24 April 1867, FO 118–124. The word chucho in Argentina means “the shivers,” and probably referred to malaria.
143 Garmendia, Memorias, p. 37.
144 El Nacional, 13 May 1868.
145 Gould to Stanley, no. 2, 23 December 1867, FO 118–124.
146 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, 10 April 1867, Pacco 903.
147 El Nacional, 22 and 25 April 1867.
148 Matthew to Stanley, no. 32, 26 April 1867, FO 118–124.
149 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, 10 April 1867, Pacco 903.
150 El Nacional, 18 December 1867.
151 El Nacional, 20 and 29 January 1868.
152 Gould to Stanley, no. 4, 11 January 1868, FO 118–129.
153 Gould to Stanley, nos. 10 and 28, 25 January and 4 March 1886, FO 118–129.
154 Rawson to Mitre, 9 January 1867, AGM, vol. 5, Guerra al Paraguay, p. 32.
155 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, no. 36, 1 July 1867, Pacco 903.
156 El National, 18 December 1869.
157 Matthew to Stanley, no. 49, 28 July 1867, FO 118–124.
158 Mitre to Gutiérrez, 28 November 1867, AGM, vol. 1, Presidencia de la República, p. 27.
159 Spanish minister to Madrid, no. 42, 26 March 1868, H1349.
160 Astengo to Foreign Ministry, no. 122, 31 March 1868, Pacco 1248.
161 El National, 21 October 1867.
162 Astengo to Foreign Ministry, no. 122, 31 March 1868, Pacco 1248.
163 Astengo to Foreign Ministry, no. 67, 28 May 1868, Pacco 1248.
164 Hutchinson to Gould, 27 Dec.ember 1867, FO 118–125.
165 Chapperon to Foreign Ministry, 26 and 27 December 1867, Pacco 903.
166 Hutchinson to Gould, 4 January 1868, FO 118–130.
167 Seymour, Richard Arthur. Pioneering in the Pampas, or The First Four Years of a Settlers’ Experience in the La Plata Campa (London: Longman, Green and Co., 1869), p. 158.Google Scholar
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169 Hutchinson to Gould, nos. 12 and 13, 31 January and 4 April 1868, FO 118–130.
