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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2015
On 11 September 1941, U..S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt took to the airwaves to warn his country that “Hitler's advance guards” were readying “footholds, bridgeheads in the New World, to be used as soon as he has gained control of the oceans.” The most recent sign that the Nazis were coming, the president told his rapt national audience, was the discovery of “secret airlanding fields in Colombia, within easy range of the Panama Canal.”
In Bogotá, the response was pandemonium. U.S. ambassador Spruille Braden, astonished that “the President has gone out on a limb with this statement,” sent his staff scrambling across German-owned farms and rice fields to try to produce evidence for the assertion ex post facto. Colombian President Eduardo Santos scoffed at Roosevelt's claim, telling Braden, “in the final analysis all of Colombia is a great potential airport.” A resentful Colombian Senate voted unanimously that no such airfields existed (that Colombia had fulfilled its responsibility to defend against the Axis menace). In Washington, Secretary of State Cordell Hull was forced to call in Colombia's Ambassador Gabriel Turbay to express “the very deep regret of the President, of myself and of our Government” for the “unintentional reference.”
1 Buhite, Russell D. and Levy, David W. eds., FDR’s Fireside Chats (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), p. 192.Google Scholar
2 Braden, Spruille Diplomats and Demagogues (New Rochelle: Arlington House, 1971), p. 240;Google Scholar Bushnell, David Eduardo Santos and the Good Neighbor 1938–1942 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1967), p. 61;Google Scholar Braden to Welles, 24 November 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Sumner Welles Papers, FDR Library, Hyde Park, NY; Hull, , “Reference to Air Field in Colombia,” 17 September 1941, reel 28, Cordell Hull Papers (microfilm), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
3 “Latin America—Totalitarian Activities,” 1941, reel 45, Hull Papers.
4 Frye, Alton Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), p. 78.Google Scholar
5 FBI, “Colombia Today,” March 1942, p. 22, in folder “FBI Reports—Colombia,” Box 141, Harry Hopkins Papers, FDR Library, p. 22.
6 Spruille Braden, 1952–1953, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, p. 2711.
7 Braden to President, 27 March 1939, OF 3193, FDR Library.
8 Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, pp. 2 Google Scholar and 22; Drekonja, Gerhard Retos de la política exterior colombiana (Bogotá: Fondo Editorial Ceree, 1983);Google Scholar Cepeda Ulloa, Fernando and García-Peña, Rodrigo Pardo “La política exterior colombiana 1930–1946,” in Tirado Mejía, Alvaro ed., Nueva Historia de Colombia (Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial, 1989), pp. 9–28.Google Scholar
9 Randall, Stephen J. Colombia and the United States: Hegemony and Interdependence (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), pp. 164–166.Google Scholar
10 Braden to Welles, 20 June 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Welles Papers.
11 Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, p. 18;Google Scholar Whitaker, Arthur P. The United States and South America: The Northern Republics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948), p. 48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Josephson, Matthew Empire of the Air: Juan Trippe and the Struggle for World Airways (New York: Arno Press, 1972).Google Scholar
12 Braden, , Diplomats and Demagogues, pp. 230–240,Google Scholar and Braden, Oral History, pp. 2682–2700.Google Scholar
13 Schoonover, Thomas Germany in Central America: Competitive Imperialism, 1821–1929 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), p. 192;Google Scholar Burden, William The Struggle for Airways in Latin America (New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 72–78.Google Scholar
14 Adolf Berle Diary, 12 October 1940, Adolf Berle Papers, FDR Library.
15 The term “fifth column” stems from the Spanish Civil War, when Franco’s General Emilio Mola was asked how many soldiers he had available for an attack on Madrid. “We have four columns on the march outside the city,” he said. “In the city we have a ‘fifth column.’” See Congressional Record, Senate, vol. 86, pt. 1, 76th Congress, Third Session, p.6773.
16 FBI, “Colombia Today.”
17 Author interview with former Justice Department official Raymond Ickes, 18 September 1997, Berkeley, California.
18 “Latin America—Totalitarian Activities” as above; FBI, “Colombia Today”; and Braden to SecState, 15 December 1941, 862.20221/428, RG59, National Archives (hereafter NA), College Park, MD.
19 Thousands of expatriate Germans were brought home by Hitler’s regime for labor and military service. See McKale, Donald M. The Swastika Outside Germany (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1977), p. 111;Google Scholar Pommerin, Reiner “Überlegungen des ‘Dritten Reiches’ zur Rückholung deutscher Auswanderer aus Lateinamerika,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 16 (1979), p. 370.Google Scholar
20 Ickes interview.
21 Vallejo Sánchez to MRE, 29 November 1940, Informes Confidenciales—Nazis 1939–1940, Archivo del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Bogotá, Colombia (hereafter AMRE); Hoover to Lyon, 17 July 1946, 862.20210/7-1746, RG59, NA. The paramilitary legend nevertheless found its way into post-war academic studies of Latin America’s Germans. See Simonson, William N. “Nazi Infiltration in South America, 1933–1945” (Ph.D. dissertation, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 1964), pp. 269–72.Google Scholar Simonson is cited uncritically in Bushnell’s otherwise measured work. Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, p. 58.Google Scholar
22 Braden to Sec State, 6 August 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Welles Papers, and Ickes interview.
23 Legation Bogotá, German Boletín Alemán, 1940, various dates, in folder “Propaganda Totalitaria—1940,” Actividades nazis—1940–1942, AMRE;Google Scholar FBI, “Colombia Today,” pp. 97–100; Duggan to Lane, 20 May 1942, Box 19, and Lane to Duggan, 10 June 1942, Box 67, Arthur Bliss Lane Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.
24 Galvis, Silvia “Peripecias de los Nazis Criollos,” Credencial Historia 67 (July 1995), pp. 12–15.Google Scholar
25 Braden Oral History, pp. 1169–1170, 1180, 1183 and 1191; Diplomats and Demagogues, pp. 255–256; Duggan to Secretary of State, Proposed Appointment by War Department of Colonel Carl H. Strong as Military Attaché to Central America, 31 August 1943, in folder “General Memoranda July-August 1943,” Memoranda Relating to General Latin American Affairs, Box 8, Division of American Republics Affairs (hereafter ARA), RG59, NA.
26 Duggan to Welles, 23 September 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Welles Papers; Gunther, John Inside Latin America (New York: Harper & Row, 1940, 1941), p. 160.Google Scholar
27 Braden to Welles, 24 November 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Welles Papers.
28 Alberto Vargas to MRE, 17 September 1940, in folder “Actividades Nazis 1940,” Actividades Nazis 1940–1942, AMRE; Turbay to MRE, 25 July 1941, Embajada de Colombia en Washington, AMRE.
29 Porter, Russell B. “Colombia’s Nazis Armed for Attack,” New York Times, 18 August 1940, p. 16.Google Scholar See below for Nazi Party membership figures.
30 Watts, Richard Jr., “Colombia Imperils Democracy by Closing Eyes to Nazi Threat,” New York Herald-Tribune, 16 September 1940.Google Scholar
31 Vanderbilt, Cornelius Jr., “Can Hitler Take Central America?” Liberty Magazine, 14 November 1940, p. 58.Google Scholar
32 Colombia’s population was approximately nine million. Some three hundred of the 4,000 Germans were Nazi Party members. Senate Committee on Military Affairs, Nazi Party Membership Records, Senate Committee Prints 79/2/46, Part 2, March 1946, and Part 3, September 1946, S1535–S1538 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946); Davis, Robert H. Historical Dictionary of Colombia, 2nd ed. (London: Scarecrow Press, 1993), p. 404.Google Scholar
33 Fletcher Warren to SecState, “Erich RATH and the A.N.F.B.,” 8 April 1943, 862.20210 Rath Erich/8, RG59, NA; AmEmbBogota to SecState, 8 April 1943, 862.20210 Rath Erich/13, RG59, NA; Braden, , Oral History, p. 2490;Google Scholar Braden, , Diplomats and Demagogues, p. 243;Google Scholar Kießling, Wolfgang Exil in Lateinamerika (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Philipp Reclam, 1984), pp. 422–27.Google Scholar
34 Directorate of the ANFB, Vom lnformationswesen unserer Bewegung, in folder “Informes Secretos—Quinta Columna,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Entidades Nazis Años 1942–1943, AMRE.
35 Hans Ungar, interview with author, Bogotá, 16 March 1998.
36 Nazi Party Membership Records.
37 NSD 8/43 (Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP. Statistik, 30.6.1939, Geheim), Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde (hereafter BA-L). I am grateful to Dr. Michael Buddrus of the Institut für Zeitgeschichte, Aussenstelle Berlin, for sharing his analysis of these figures.
38 Vallejo Sánchez to Director Policía Nacional, 13 January 1942, Actividades Nazis 1940–1942, AMRE.
39 “Das Judentum trifft sich selbst!!” in Karibischer Beobachter, 15 December 1938, pp. 5–6. There are copies of several years of the Karibischer Beobachter at the Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut at the Neue Staatsbibliothek, Preussischer Kulturbesitz zu Berlin. See also Kießling, , Exil in Lateinamerika, p. 420.Google Scholar
40 Suspected Germans Etc., Addendum No. 18, 19 March 1941, in folder “Informes Confidenciales—Listas—1941—Quinta Columna,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Actividades Nazis—1941, AMRE.
41 FBI, German Espionage in Latin America, June 1946, p.20, doc. 862.20210/6–1746, RG59, NA.
42 Braden to SecState, 15 December 1941, 862.20221/428, RG59, NA, and Castillo to Jefe de Seguridad Nacional, Erick [sic] Rath, 15 October 1942, in folder “Informes Secretos—Quinta Columna,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Entidades Nazis Años 1942–1943, AMRE, Bogotá, for Rath as source of chart. See also Kießling, , Exil in Lateinamerika, pp. 430–31.Google Scholar
43 “Latin America—Totalitarian Activities.”
44 Keith to SecState, 18 April 1941, 821.00/1324, RG59, NA, cited in Galvis, Silvia and Donadío, Alberto Colombia Nazi 1939–1945: Espionaje alemán, la cacería del FBI, Santos, López y los pactos secretos (Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial, 1986), p. 116.Google Scholar
45 Vallejo Sánchez to MRE, 29 November 1940, Informes Confidenciales—Nazis 1939–1940, AMRE; Gómez Picón to Santos, 26 July 1940, Informes Confidenciales—Nazis 1939–1940, AMRE.
46 Dorsz to Alexander, 5 September 1944, in folder “Removal of Enemy Aliens, August-September 1944,” Subject Files, 1939–1954, Special War Problems (SWP), RG59, NA; Whitehead, Donald F. The FBI Story (New York: Random House, 1956), pp. 273–276.Google Scholar
47 Santos to López de Mesa, 22 November 1940, in folder “Informaciones Confidenciales—Listas,” Informaciones Confidenciales—Nazis—1939–1940, AMRE.
48 Acheson, , “Action Taken by the United States Government in the Economic Field to Eliminate Axis Influence from the Other American Republics,” 2 June 1942, in folder “711 1942,” Colombia: Bogotá Embassy, Security-Segregated General Records,Google Scholar 1938–1949, Box 23, RG84, NA.
49 Welles, , “Procedures and Policies on Maintenance of the Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals,” 28 August 1941, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRU.S.) 1941, 6, pp. 271–83.Google Scholar
50 Galvis, and Donadio, , Colombia Nazi, p. 110.Google Scholar
51 Braden, , Diplomats and Demagogues, pp. 205–206.Google Scholar Braden distrusted López de Mesa for other reasons. The foreign minister had told Braden in April 1939 that he expected a world war, and anticipated it would cut off many imports from the United States, so he was making plans for Colombia to develop light industry and a degree of self-sufficiency in motors, drugs, and chemicals. Braden told him that would be uneconomical and unnecessary since the U.S. would continue to supply Colombia’s needs; to the State Department, Braden wrote that such a program would harm U.S.-Colombian relations because it would reduce U.S. exports and because Colombian industrialization would “nurture unsound nationalistic programs in commerce” and induce Colombians to invest their financial resources locally, at the expense of repayment of the national debt to U.S. banks. Braden to SecState, 14 April 1939, 711.21/934, RG59, NA, cited in Rawls, Shirley N. “Spruille Braden: A Political Biography” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1976), pp. 106–107.Google Scholar
52 Adolf Berle Diary, 7 May 1942, Berle Papers. Braden also rejected Stagg’s offer to forge documents connecting Nazis to a failed coup attempt in Colombia, as Stagg had done in Bolivia. Adolf Berle Diary, 4 September 1941; Braden to Welles, 9 August 1941, folder 12, Box 67, Welles Papers.
53 Galvis, and Donadio, , Colombia Nazi, p. 128.Google Scholar
54 Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, p. 64;Google Scholar Lane to SecState, 25 November 1941, 740.00112AEW1939/4225, RG59, NA; “Colombiano dice que la confección de las listas negras no pueda hacerse sin la intervención directa de las autoridades colombianas,” La Tribuna (San José), 22 November 1941, p. 1.
55 Randall, , Colombia and the United States, p. 165;Google Scholar Enrique Biermann, Universidad Nacional, Bogotá, written communication to the author, 20 March 1998.
56 Braden, (Bogotá) to Secretary of State, 14 November 1941, FRU.S. 1941, 6, pp. 305–307.Google Scholar
57 López de Mesa to President of Colombian Senate, 20 January 1942, in folder “Listas Negras— Varios—1941,” Listas Negras—1941, AMRE, Bogotá.
58 December 1941-January 1942, folder 15 & 16, Map Room files (MR) 36, FDR Library.
59 AmLegQuito to Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 10 March 1942, in Serie B, Embajada de Estados Unidos,_MRE, Archivo Histórico de Quito (AHQ), Ecuador; Walter Held, interview with author, Bogotá, 9 March 1998.
60 Stimson to Hull, 29 December 1941, 740.00115EW1939/1646, RG59, NA; Braden to Secretary of State, 31 December 1941, 740.00115EW1939/1661, RG59, NA; Hull to AmEmbBogota, 30 December 1941, 740.00115EW1939/1661A, RG59, NA; Braden to Secretary of State, 15 January 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1718, RG59, NA; Walmsley to Duggan, 15 January 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1838, RG59, NA.
61 Restrepo, Carlos Lleras Crónica de mi propia vida, vol. 6 (Bogotá: Starnato Editores, 1983), p. 170.Google Scholar
62 Bendetson to Warren, 24 January 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1967 3/7, RG59, NA.
63 Long to Gullion, 24 February 1942, 740.00115EW1939/2095A, RG59, NA.
64 Bendetson to Warren, 24 January 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1967 3/7, RG59, NA.
65 Fletcher Warren to Gordon, 6 April 1942, 740.00115EW1939/2634, RG59, NA
66 Howard, George C. “Development, Status and Evaluation of the Colombian Government’s Freezing Controls of Axis Assets with Special Reference to the Proclaimed List,” July 1942, in folder “711 1942,” Colombia: Bogota Embassy, Security-Segregated General Records,Google Scholar 1938–49, Box 23, RG84, NA.
67 Skowronski to Auswartiges Amt (AA), 29 May 1942, R41557, Zivilgefangenen-Austausch-Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Rechtsabteilung, Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (hereafter PAAA), Bonn, Germany; MRE, Lista de los alemanes a quienes el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores autorizó para dirigirse a la Policía Nacional afin de que otorgaran las garantías necesarias para permanecer en el país., in folder “Actividades Nazis 1941,” Actividades Nazis—1940–1942, AMRE.
68 Hill, J.C. Memorandum, 26 August 1942,Google Scholar 701.0010/555 1/2, RG59, NA.
69 Keith to SecState, 22 April 1942, 740.00115EW1939/2920, RG59, NA; Gardiner, C. Harvey Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), pp. 25 Google Scholar and 29.
70 Gardiner, , Pawns, p. 29.Google Scholar See also Welles to AmLegManagua, 2 April 1942, 740.00115EW1939/2482, RG59, NA, for similar order not to visa deportees.
71 Skowronski to AA, 29 May 1942, R41557, Zivilgefangenen-Austausch-Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Rechtsabteilung, PAAA; Hermann Egner to Swiss Legation Washington, Alien Detention Camp Kenedy—Texas, 27 June 1942, R41562, Zivilgefangenen-Austausch-Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Rechtsabteilung, PAAA; Karl-Albrecht Engel, Zusammenfassender Bericht über die Zeit von 1942–1945 (Guatemala—Internierung U.S.A), 18 June 1945, R 64 III/6, Heimkehrerberichte über Südamerika, Lateinamerikanischer Verein, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter BA-K), Germany; Max Habicht to Swiss Foreign Ministry, Report on the Visit to Detention Stations for Civilian Internes in the United States of America, 18 August 1942, Band 1, E2200 Washington/15, Schweizerisches Bundesarchiv (hereafter SB A), Bern, Switzerland; Swiss Legation Washington to DoS, 14 January 1944, Band 10, Noten an Staatsdepartement, January. Junei 1944, E2200 Washington/15, SBA; author interview, Hugo Droege, 22 May 1996, Guatemala City; author interview, Gunter Lisken, 17 February 1998, Guayaquil; Gufler, and Herrick, , “Report on Civilian Detention Station, Camp Kenedy,” 22 May 1942,Google Scholar 740.00115EW1939/4715, RG59, NA; Gardiner, , Pawns, p. 30.Google Scholar
72 See Kaul, , Karl, Friedrich Krueger, , Wilhelm, Emil and Kill, , Adolph, Gustav in “Name Files of Enemy Aliens,” Boxes 31–50, SWP, RG59, NA;Google Scholar “Fragebogen für Auslandsdeutsche Fltichtlinge” and accompanying documents, in Colombia files, Rückwandereramt der AO, BA-L. Kaul is described (as “Dr. Kahl”) by Lothes, Wilhelm “Statement to Gestapo,” 30 October 1942, p. 3,Google Scholar 3601000203, in this collection.
73 Morgan to Ladd, “The German Diplomatic Corps,” 10 April 1942, “Germans in Custody,” Greenbrier Hotel Internal Security Reports, Box 9, MSS 93–4, Morgan Papers, University of Virginia Law Library.
74 Albrecht to Theiss, 28 May 1942, R41557, Zivilgefangenen-Austausch-Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Rechtsabteilung, PAAA; Emil Prüfert to AA, 1 June 1942, and Emil Prüfert to Thomsen, 1 June 1942, R41559, Zivilgefangenen-Austausch-Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Rechtsabteilung, PAAA. True to his racist ideology, Prüfert grumbled that the exchange ships would soon deliver unworthy human capital to Germany. “Our border officials will have the pleasure of seeing a nice Völkerschau from the jungles of Ecuador!” he wrote in disgust. “Among them can be found pure Indian women, each with her own bastards, who here in the hotel have from the beginning comported themselves as if they were still in the jungle, and certainly have not done credit to the appearance of Germandom.”
75 Hull to AmEmbBogotá, 30 January 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1765, RG59, NA; Hull to AmEmbBogotá, 11 February 1942, 740.00115EW1939/1766, RG59, NA.
76 Joseph C. Green, 22 July 1942, 701.0010/523 1/2, RG59, NA.
77 Dr. Gerardo López, interview with author, Bogotá, 6 March 1998. See also Galvis, and Donadio, , Colombia Nazi, pp. 216–226;Google Scholar Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, p. 105.Google Scholar
78 Lyon to Welles et.al., 29 June 1942, 740.0011PW/2729, reel 235 M982, RG59, NA; Hoover to Lyon, 17 July 1946, 862.20210/17–1746, RG59, NA; Galvis, and Donadio, , Colombia Nazi, pp. 216–217;Google Scholar Bushnell, , Eduardo Santos, p. 105.Google Scholar
79 Hoover to Lyon, 17 July 1946, 862.20210/17–1746, RG59, NA.
80 Ibid.
81 Walter Held, interview with author, Bogotá, 9 March 1998; Götz Pfeil-Schneider, interview with author, Bogotá, 15 March 1998.
82 For a dramatized account from a writer who sympathized with the German immigrants (and later became president of Colombia), nonetheless closely reflecting actual events during this period, see Michelsen, Alfonso López Los Elegidos (Bogotá: Tercer Mundo, 1967).Google Scholar
83 Ernst Blumenthal to Harrick at Swiss Legation Washington, 26 November 1942, Band 4, Noten von und an Staatsdepartement, November.-Dez. 1942, E2200 Washington/15, SBA.
84 Swiss Legation Washington to Gufler at DoS, 2 October 1942, Band 4, Noten von und an Staats-departement, September-October 1942, E2200 Washington/15, SBA; Confidential: Ernst Blumenthal, 3 January 1946, in folder “Blumenthal, Ernst, Nicaragua,” Name Files of Interned Enemy Aliens from Latin America, 1942–48, Box 36, SWP, RG59, NA.
85 Acheson, , “Action Taken,” and Galvis, and Donadio, , Colombia Nazi, p. 114.Google Scholar See also documents on Laboratorios Román in folder “Listas Negras 1943,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Actividades Nazis 1942—1943—1943, AMRE, and Bustillo Franco to MRE, 2 October 1941, in Listas Negras 1941, AMRE, Bogotá. The possibility that U.S. drug companies benefited from Laboratorios Román's troubles is suggested by an incident in Brazil, which also demonstrates the mutuality of security and economic interests in the U.S. anti-German campaign. In November 1941, James Hill of the Sterling Products Corporation called at the State Department to report that a Brazilian firm was importing 20,000 kilos of aspirin powder, and to say that only two companies in Brazil make aspirin tablets; his own and the German company Chimica Bayer Limitada. Sterling had not ordered any of the 20,000 kilos, so they must all have been destined for Bayer. Hill offered his opinion that “the only effective means of preventing aspirin powder from getting into the hands of the German firm (which is one of the most important German units in Brazil) would be to make all of the ingredients subject to export license.” Aspirin powder was placed on the export control list the following month. The U.S. government struck a blow against German economic potency in Latin America, and Sterling's only serious competition in Brazil was eliminated. Adams to Acheson, “Recommendation that Aspirin Powder and its Ingredients Be Made Subject to Export License,” 3 November 1941, in folder “General Memoranda October-November 1941,” Memoranda Relating to General Latin American Affairs, Box 6, ARA, RG59, NA.
86 Legation, British Suspected Germans, etc., Addendum No. 4, October 1940, in folder “Informes Confidenciales—Listas,”Google Scholar Informes Confidenciales—Nazis—1939–1940, AMRE.
87 Hans Ungar, interview with author, Bogotá, 16 March 1998.
88 José Marchia Barrios to MRE, 9 January 1943, in folder “Listas Negras 1943,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Actividades Nazis—1942–1943–1944, AMRE.
89 Collado to Board of Economic Operations, “Report by the Proclaimed List Clearance Committee,” 9 December 1941, in folder “Board of Economic Operations—October.-December. 1941,” Box 56, Berle Papers.
90 Welles, , “Procedures and Policies on Maintenance of the Proclaimed List of Certain Blocked Nationals,” 28 August 1941, FRU.S. ¡941, 6, pp. 271–83.Google Scholar
91 Lane to SecState, 1 January 1943, 740.00112A EW39/23188, RG59, NA; Lane to Welles, 17 March 1943, Box 67, Lane Papers.
92 Lane to Welles, forwarding Derby memo, 31 March 1943, Box 67, Lane Papers.
93 Comité de Consulta, 5 June 1943, in folder “Listas Negras—Varios,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Actividades Nazis—1942–1943–1944, AMRE.
94 SecState to AmEmbBogota, 31 March 1943, 740.00112AEW1939/23233, RG59, NA.
95 A copy of this so-called “Standard Undertaking” is in U.S.EmbBogotá, n.d., in folder “Listas Negras—Varios,” Informes Confidenciales Sobre Actividades Nazis—1942–1943–1944, AMRE.
96 Acheson, , “United States Financial Assistance to Eliminate Undesirable Ownership and Control from Proclaimed List Firms,” 18 June 1943, in folder “711.2,” Costa Rica: San José Embassy Confidential File,Google Scholar Box 25, RG84, NA.
97 Elliott Bowles to Rubin, 11 December 1943, 740.00112RP/4, RG59, NA.
98 Humberto Rodríguez, Gustavo “Segunda administración de López Pumarejo,” in Tirado Mejía, Alvaro ed., Nueva Historia de Colombia, v.1 (Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial, 1989), pp. 373–396;Google Scholar Restrepo, Carlos Lleras Crónica de mi propia vida, vol. 5, p. 333;Google Scholar Tirado Mejía, Alvaro “Colombia: Siglo y medio de bipartidismo,” in Arrubla, Marchio ed., Colombia Hoy (Bogotá: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1978), p. 167;Google Scholar Whitaker, , The United States and South America, p. 86.Google Scholar
99 FBI, “Colombia Today,” p. 18.
100 Draft to HM Represenaüve, Washington, D.C., copy all Latin American posts, May 44, /38164, cited in Newton, Ronald C. The ‘Nazi Menace’ in Argentina, 1931–1947 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), p. 349.Google Scholar
101 Wells, 10 May 1945, 740.2112RP/5–1045, RG59, NA; Wiley, John C. 8 November 1945, in folder “Diplomatic Files: Colombia, 1944–1947,” Box 5, John C. Wiley Papers,Google Scholar FDR Library.
102 Author analysis of 600 Alien Enemy Control Section reports in Name Files of Interned Enemy Aliens from Latin America, SWP, RG59, NA.
103 Hoover to Neal, 14 October 1946, 862.20210/10–1446, RG59, NA. For details, see FBI, German Espionage in Latin America.
104 Hanley to Coleman, 12 October 1943, 862.20210 Rath Erich/23 1/2, RG59, NA; Davis to Spaeth, “Confidential: Eric Rath,” 9 November 1945, in folder “Rath, Eric, Ecuador,” Name Files of Interned Enemy Aliens from Latin America, 1942–48, Box 45, SWP, RG59, NA.
