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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 April 2010
Austria's status of neutrality contended with crises almost immediately after its founding along with the 1955 State Treaty. First, during the Soviet invasion of Hungary in October 1956, Austrian neutrality faced the threat of conflict when Soviet-Hungarian clashes spilled over into Austria. Then, in July 1958, Austrian neutrality contended with more benign, but nonetheless disturbing, provocations from the Cold War's Western superpower, the United States. As U.S. military planes transited Austria in broad daylight on their way to Lebanon, the cozy, covert Austro-American relationship became all too overt. Although many Austrians believed neutrality would end foreign (particularly Soviet) domination and would ensure an ultimate withdrawal from global upheavals, these events showed that neutrality by itself could not remove the strategic implications inherent in Austria's position in Cold War Central Europe. Indeed, partisan strategic calculations in both East and West had played a significant role in creating Austrian neutrality. As a result, preserving both Austria's neutrality and its links to the West required delicate maneuvering by a small, poorly defended country amid Cold War crosscurrents of Eastern threats and Western sympathies. Already in its early years, Austrian neutrality proved to be less of the holiday from history that many Austrians expected during the festive mood of May 1955.
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127 Ibid. Austrian prohibitions against foreign uniforms are still in force in the twenty-first century. While on his way to breakfast at the Café Florianigasse on 21 June 2005, the author passed First Lieutenant (Oberleutnant) Geldmacher of the German Bundeswehr's Eighth Panzer Division wearing a German rocket artillery officer's uniform in the courtyard of the Bezirksamt (city hall) for the 8th Bezirk (Josefstadt) of Vienna across from the café. Asked by the author about the German uniform, Lieutenant Geldmacher displayed his official Austrian documentation allowing him to wear a German uniform during his wedding (hence the Bezirksamt) in Vienna, where he was marrying an Austrian woman.
128 Memorandum of Conversation on 5 September 1957 concerning the Violation of Austrian Border by United States Army, Folder 763.5411/2-2356, Box 3583, 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 763.5-MSP/1-555 to 763.62/3-2557, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59; NA, College Park, MD.
129 Memorandum of Conversation on 16 September 1957 concerning U. S. Army Helicopter Crossing of Austrian Border, Folder 763.5411/2-2356, Box 3583; 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 763.5-MSP/1-555 to 763.62/3-2557, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
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131 Memorandum of Conversation between Chancellor Raab, Vice-Chancellor Schaerf, J. K. Penfield, General W. H. Arnold, H. G. Torbert, Col. Noel, Col. Nixon, Capt. Schlesinger, and Mr. Puhan, 16 July 1955, Military Installation Turnover (405) Folder; Box 7, Entry 1283, Lot 58D72, Subject Files Relating to Austrian Affairs, 1954-1956, Miscellaneous Lot Files, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
132 Ibid.
133 FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 26, Central and Southeastern Europe, 26.
134 Proposed US-Austrian Agreement on USAF Overflights of Austria, 16 January 1956, Transit Rights, 1955–1956, Folder (212), Box 1, Entry 3092, Decimal Files Related to Italy and Austria, 1953–1958, Office of Western European Affairs in the Bureau of European and British Commonwealth Affairs, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
135 Ibid. En lieu of a formal agreement, the Americans wanted at least an initialed protocol of their conversations with the Austrians over transit requests.
136 Incoming Telegram of 23 February 1956, Folder 763.5411/2-2356, Box 3583, 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 763.5-MSP/1-555 to 763.62/3-2557, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
137 Ibid.
138 Incoming Telegram of 23 March 1956, Folder 763.5411/2-2356, Box 3583, 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 763.5-MSP/1-555 to 763.62/3-2557, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
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164 Memorandum of conversation on 8 December 1958 concerning Austrian matters between Dr. Wilfried Platzer, Ambassador, Embassy of Austria, Dr. Heinz Haymerle, Director, Political Department, Austrian Foreign Office, Mr. Frederick W. Jandrey, Deputy Assistant Secretary, European Affairs, Mr. McBride (WE), Mr. Cameron (WE), Miss Harvey (WE), and Mr. Chapin (WE), Folder 611.63/1-358, Box 2537, 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 611.63/1-358 to 611.63921/12-2156, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD. Curiously, this document misidentifies the given name of Heinrich Haymerle as Heinz.
165 Rauchensteiner, Die Zwei, 384.
166 Hannes-Christian Clausen, “Österreich und das strategische Konzept des Westens, 1955–1970,” in Schild ohne Schwert, 14–15.
167 Rauchensteiner, Die Zwei, 385.
168 FRUS, 1958–1960, 796. The transcript of the 8 December 1958 conversation reprinted in FRUS also refers to Heinz, not Heinrich, Haymerle.
169 Memorandum of conversation on 8 December 1958 concerning Austrian matters.
170 Rauchensteiner, Die Zwei, 384–85.
171 Rathkolb, “The Foreign Relations between the U.S.A. and Austria in the late 1950s,” 31.
172 Rathkolb, Oliver, “Austria's ‘Ostpolitik’ in the 1950s and 1960s: Honest Broker or Double Agent?” Austrian History Yearbook 26 (1995): 144CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
173 Rathkolb, “The Foreign Relations between the U.S.A. and Austria in the late 1950s,” 31.
174 Telegram to the secretary from EUR-Mr. Jandrey on Chancellor Raab's visit to Moscow, Folder 611.63/1-358, Box 2537, 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 611.63/1-358 to 611.63921/12-2156, General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
175 Incoming telegram of 1 August 1958; Folder 763.5411/2-2356; Box 3583; 1955–1959 Central Decimal File from 763.5-MSP/1-555 to 763.62/3-2557; General Records of the Department of State, RG 59; NA, College Park, MD.
176 FRUS, 1958–1960, 796; Memorandum of conversation on 8 December 1958 concerning Austrian matters.
177 Telegram to the secretary from EUR-Mr. Jandrey on Chancellor Raab's visit to Moscow. For a copy of the Belgrade Convention, see: “Convention Regarding the Regime of Navigation on the Danube. Signed at Belgrade, on 18 August 1948,” University of Ljubljana, http://ksh.fgg.uni-lj.si/danube/belgconv (accessed 16 December 2006).
178 Rathkolb, “The Foreign Relations between the U.S.A. and Austria in the late 1950s,” 31–32.
179 FRUS, 1958–1960, 815.
180 Kofler, Martin, “Eine ‘Art Nabel der Welt’: Österreich und der Chruschtschow-Besuch 1960,” Zeitgeschichte 26, no. 6 (1999): 398Google Scholar; Rathkolb, “Austria's ‘Ostpolitik’ in the 1950s and 1960s,” 144; and Rathkolb, “The Foreign Relations between the U.S.A. and Austria in the late 1950s,” 32. The State Treaty's Article 26 concerning the “Property, Rights and Interests of Minority Groups in Austria” stated that:
in so far as such action has not already been taken, Austria undertakes that, in all cases where property, legal rights or interests in Austria have since 13th March, 1938, been subject of forced transfer or measures of sequestration, confiscation or control on account of the racial origin or religion of the owner, the said property shall be returned and the said legal rights and interests shall be restored together with their accessories. Where return or restoration is impossible, compensation shall be granted for losses incurred by reason of such measures to the same extent as is, or may be, given to Austrian nationals generally in respect of war damage.
For copy of the State Treaty, see: “State Treaty,” European Navigator, http://www.ena.lu/mce.cfm (accessed 3 December 2005). For a German translation of the Anglo-American Vienna Memorandum signed with Austria on 10 May 1955, see: Eva-Marie Csáky, Der Weg zu Freiheit und Neutralität: Dokumentation zur österreichischen Außenpolitik, 1945–1955 10, Schriftenreihe der österreichischen Gesellschaft für Aussenpolitik und internationale Beziehungen (Vienna, 1980), 371–76.
181 Rathkolb, “Austria's ‘Ostpolitik’ in the 1950s and 1960s,” 144; “The Foreign Relations between the U.S.A. and Austria in the late 1950s,” 32.
182 Schleinzer-Roesch Visit Papers, Defense Minister SCHLEINZER-Roesch Visit—1962 (16-A.5) Folder, Box 2, Entry 5293, Lot 68D123, Records Relating to Austria, 1957–1964; Bureau of European Affairs, Country Director for Italy, Austria, and Switzerland (EUR/AIS), General Records of the Department of State, RG 59, NA, College Park, MD.
183 Hans-Willi Nolden, “Politische Aspekte der Neutralität im Kalten Krieg unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Schweiz und Österreichs, 1945–1956” (PhD diss., Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, 1978), 421.
184 Meier-Walser, Reinhard, Der Streikputsch der KP Österreichs und seine internationalen Hintergründe: Die kommunistischen Streikaktionen vom September/Oktober 1950 im besetzten Österreich vor dem Hintergrund der sowjetischen Machtexpansion in Osteuropa nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges, Tuduv-Studie Politikwissenschaften series (Munich, 1986), 428Google Scholar.
185 Stöckl, Die Verteidigungspolitik der ÖVP, 166.
186 Ermacora, Felix, 20 Jahre Österreichische Neutralität (Frankfurt, 1975), 162Google Scholar.
187 Hummer and Mayrzedt, 20 Jahre Österreichische Neutralitäts- und Europapolitik, 42.
188 Ibid.; Neuhold, “Permanent Neutrality and Nonalignment,” 166.
189 Csáky, Eva-Marie, Der Weg zu Freiheit und Neutralität (Vienna, 1980), 361Google Scholar.
