No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
The winter of raw computers: the history of the lunar and planetary reductions of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 February 2023
Abstract
In 1839 the working hours of the computers employed on the lunar and planetary reductions of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich were reduced from eleven hours to eight hours. Previous historians have explained this decrease by reference to the generally benevolent nature of the manager of the reductions, George Biddell Airy. By contrast, this article uses the letters and notes exchanged between Airy and the computers to demonstrate that the change in the working hours originated from the computers as a reaction to their poor working conditions. Through the exploration of these archival materials, the article shifts the focus of the analysis to the working experience of the computers, rather than to the administrative history of the project that inevitably tends to highlight Airy's actions. By doing so, the article shows how the computers were treated as a disposable low-skilled workforce, as opposed to aspiring astronomers with considerable mathematical talent. Through this reframing, the article takes a step towards a working history of the observatory.
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of British Society for the History of Science
References
1 Meadows, Arthur Jack, ‘The Airy era’, Vistas in Astronomy (1976) 20, pp. 197–201, 198CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
2 Croarken, Mary, ‘Human computers in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Britain’, in Robson, Eleanor and Stedall, Jacqueline (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Mathematics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 375–406, 391Google Scholar.
3 The term ‘factory mentality’ to characterize Airy's directorship was introduced in Chapman, Allan, ‘Sir George Airy (1801–1892) and the concept of international standards in science, timekeeping and navigation’, Vistas in Astronomy (1985) 20, pp. 321–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Johnston, Scott Alan, ‘Managing the observatory: discipline, order and disorder at Greenwich, 1835–1933’, BJHS (2021) 54(2), pp. 155–75, 166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
5 Maunder, Walter, The Royal Observatory Greenwich: A Glance at Its History and Work, London: The Religious Tract Society, 1900Google Scholar.
6 Aubin, David, ‘On the epistemic and social foundations of mathematics as tool and instrument in observatories, 1793–1846’, in Lenhard, Johannes and Carrier, Martin (eds.), Mathematics as a Tool: Tracing New Roles of Mathematics in the Sciences, Cham: Springer, 2017, pp. 177–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 Grier, David Alan, When Computers Were Human, Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2005Google Scholar.
8 For an overview of the various ways in which the concept of invisible technician was deployed, see Morus, Iwan Rhys, ‘Invisible technicians, instrument-makers and artisans’, in Lightman, Bernard (ed.), A Companion to the History of Science, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2016, pp. 97–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 Smith, Robert W., ‘A national observatory transformed: Greenwich in the nineteenth century’, Journal for the History of Astronomy (1991) 22(1), pp. 5–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schaffer, Simon, ‘Astronomers mark time: discipline and the personal equation’, Science in Context (1988) 2(1), pp. 115–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rothermel, Holly, ‘Images of the sun: Warren De la Rue, George Biddell Airy and celestial photography’, BJHS (1993) 26(2), pp. 137–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Macdonald, Lee T., ‘The origins and early years of the Magnetic and Meteorological department at Greenwich Observatory, 1834–1848’, Annals of Science (2018) 75(3), pp. 201–33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
10 Laurie, Philip S., ‘The Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory – II: 1830–1965’, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1967) 8, pp. 334–53Google Scholar; Ratcliff, Jessica, The Transit of Venus Enterprise in Victorian Britain, London: Pickering & Chatto, 2008Google Scholar.
11 Croarken, op. cit. (2); Grier, op. cit. (7); Ashworth, William J., ‘The calculating eye: Baily, Herschel, Babbage and the business of astronomy’, BJHS (1994) 27(4), pp. 409–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ashworth, William J., ‘John Herschel, George Airy, and the roaming eye of the state’, History of Science (1998) 36(2), pp. 151–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 Johnston, op. cit. (4).
13 Omar Nasim, ‘Observatorium’, in Marianne Sommer, Staffan Muller-Wille and Carsten Reinhardt (eds.), Handbuch Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 2017, pp. 180–92.
14 Nasim, op. cit. (13); Belteki, Daniel, ‘The spring of order: Robert Main's management of astronomical labor at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich’, History of Science (2021)Google ScholarPubMed, OnlineFirst, at https://doi.org/10.1177/00732753211028434.
15 Once again, a systematic assessment of how Airy's vision of astronomy and science has changed over time would be useful, but such research has not yet been undertaken and is beyond the scope of this article. For initial attempts that incorporate such an approach see Rothermel, op. cit. (9); Macdonald, Lee, Kew Observatory & The Evolution of Victorian Science 1840–1910, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Belteki, Daniel, ‘“The grand strategy of an observatory”: George Airy's vision for the division of astronomical labour among observatories during the nineteenth century’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society (2021)Google Scholar, [AheadOfPrint], at https://doi.org/10.1098/rsnr.2021.0034.
16 The two projects collectively will be referred to as ‘the reductions’ for the rest of the article. The article will also delineate between the lunar reductions and the planetary reductions when necessary.
17 For an overview of the debate see Higgitt, Rebekah, ‘Challenging tropes: genius, heroic invention, and the longitude problem in the museum’, Isis (2017) 108(2), pp. 371–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
18 George Biddell Airy, Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Cambridge, Cambridge: J. Smith, 1829, pp. v–vii.
19 George Biddell Airy, ‘Report on the progress of astronomy during the present century’, in Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, London: John Murray, 1833, pp. 125–89, 187.
20 RGO 6/524 6, Lord Althorp to John Herschel, 25 July 1833.
21 It is not known why Glaisher stopped working on the project. For the last payment made to Glaisher see RGO 6/524 29–30, Accounts relating to the Expenditure for Reduction of Greenwich Planetary Observations, 2 August 1833.
22 RGO 6/524 162, Airy to the Marquis of Breadalbane, 11 May 1841.
23 This group of computers included John William Thomas, Hugh Breen, Hugh Breen Jr, Edwin Dunkin, Richard Dunkin, Thaddeus Foley, George Withersby, J.H. Bowman and John Putt. For the list of computers employed see RGO 6/524 117–18, Accounts relating to the Expenditure for the Reduction of the Greenwich Lunar and Planetary Observations, [c.1839].
24 RGO 6/524 121, Airy to Spearman, 13 April 1839.
25 RGO 6/524 132, Airy to Robert Gordon, 18 April 1840. A portion of Airy's statement made to the BAAS still survives. See RGO 6/524 145 [statement by Airy on the planetary reductions], 22 September 1840.
26 RGO 6/524 153, Airy to Edward Sabine, 27 April 1841.
27 George Biddell Airy, Reduction of the Observations of Planets Made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from 1750 to 1830, London: Palmer and Clayton & J. Murray, 1845.
28 The brief history of this deputation was described by Airy in RGO 6/524 162, Airy to the Marquis of Breadalbane, 11 May 1841.
29 RGO 6/524 170–3, draft letter to the First Lord of the Treasury [c. June 1841].
30 RGO 6/524 181, Airy to F.T. Baring, 15 June 1841.
31 RGO 6/524 188, Charles Trevelyan to the Marquis of Breadalbane, 23 June 1841. This new group included Hugh Breen Sr, Hugh Breen Jr, James Breen, Thomas Downs, Charles Todd, J.M. Britcher, Richard Dunkin, James Mackay, Richard Harris, E. Hanson, Edward Hanson Junior, C.H. Martin, George Fryer, Thomas Eastmure and William Ellis. In 1842, George Withersby, John H. Morgan and B.G. Carter joined, while James Breen, Charles Todd and Edward Hanson Jr were no longer included on the accounts of expenditure. RGO 6/524 189, Airy to Trevelyan, 28 June 1841.
32 RGO 6/524 232, Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory, meeting of 1844 November 30.
33 Smyth, William Henry, ‘[Presidential address on the subject of the award of the Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]’, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1846) 7(4), pp. 64–7Google Scholar.
34 Airy, George Biddell, ‘Corrections of the elements of the moon's orbit, deduced from the lunar observations made at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, from 1750 to 1830’, Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (1849) 17, pp. 21–57Google Scholar.
35 Bruck, Mary and Grew, S., ‘A family of astronomers: the Breens of Armagh’, Irish Astronomical Journal (1999) 26(2), pp. 121–8Google Scholar.
36 Grier, op. cit. (7).
37 Croarken, op. cit. (2). These Reports were annual summaries of the work undertaken at Greenwich, which were sent to the body supervising the observatory's operations (the Board of Visitors). For an overview of the history of the Board of Visitors under Airy's directorship see Laurie, op. cit. (10).
38 Aubin, op. cit. (6), p. 188.
39 See RGO 6/525 18, John William Thomas to Airy [undated, c. December 1838], and RGO 6/525 28, Airy to Thomas, 12 January 1839.
40 RGO 6/525 10, Thomas to Airy [undated], original emphasis.
41 RGO 6/526 51, Airy to Riddle, 9 July 1838.
42 RGO 6/526 52, Airy to Stratford, 9 July 1838. In response, Stratford recommended three individuals aged twenty-five, seventeen and fifteen. The two younger computers were the Dunkin brothers, whose father (employed by Stratford) had recently died. See RGO 6/526 53, Stratford to Airy, 10 July 1838.
43 RGO 6/526 71, Airy to Foley, 10 November 1838.
44 RGO 6/525 7, Thomas to Airy, 7 August 1838.
45 RGO 6/526 226, Richard Dunkin to Airy, 2 November 1846; RGO 6/526 218, B.G. Carter to Robert Main, 6 October 1846. For the list of computers who also observed see George Biddell Airy, Astronomical Observations Made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Year 1846, London: Palmer And Clayton, 1848, p. ii.
46 Belteki, op. cit. (14), p. 586.
47 Croarken, op. cit. (2), pp. 391–2.
48 Dunkin, Edwin, A Far-Off Vision: A Cornishman at Greenwich Observatory, Truro: Royal Institution of Cornwall, 1999, p. 75Google Scholar.
49 RGO 6/526 269, Richard Dunkin to Airy, 5 August 1847.
50 RGO 6/526 186, G. Todd to Airy [November] 1845.
51 RGO 6/526 188, G. Todd to Airy, 19 November 1845.
52 RGO 6/526 190, G. Todd to Airy, 21 November 1845.
53 RGO 6/526 243, Airy to Charles Todd, 7 January 1847.
54 RGO 6/526 250, G. Todd to Airy, 15 February 1847.
55 RGO 6/526 251, Airy to G. Todd, 16 February 1847.
56 For an overview of the life of John William Thomas in Welsh, see Hughes, R. Elwyn, ‘Arfonwyson: Uchelgais A Siom’, Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru, National Library of Wales Journal (1999) 31(2), pp. 149–72Google Scholar.
57 RGO 6/526 8, Griffith Davies to E. Riddle, 5 April 1836; RGO 6/526 9, E. Riddle to Airy, 12 April 1836.
58 RGO 6/526 11, Airy to Thomas, 30 November 1838.
59 RGO 6/525 10, Thomas to Airy [undated]; RGO 6/526 18, Thomas to Airy [undated].
60 RGO 6/525 45, Thomas to Airy [undated], original emphasis.
61 RGO 6/526 96, Airy to Edward Jones, 17 June 1840, original emphasis.
62 Although only referred to as Mrs Caulfield in the letters, the use of the initials E.M. Caulfield in a letter suggests that it was Elizabeth Margaret Browne, wife of Henry Caulfield (an MP for Armagh several times), who wrote the initial request. For this letter see RGO 6/526 42, E.M. Caulfield to Airy, 7 June 1838. For the letter mentioning references see RGO 6/526 20, Robert Hutton to Airy, 10 February 1838.
63 RGO 6/525 54, Hugh Breen to Airy, 9 June 1839.
64 RGO 6/525 12, Airy to Thomas, 30 November 1838.
65 RGO 6/526 19, Thomas to Airy [undated].
66 RGO 6/525 78, Thomas to Airy, 1 November 1839.
67 RGO 6/525 90, Breen to Airy, 22 January 1840.
68 RGO 6/525 91, Breen to Airy, 3 April 1840.
69 RGO 6/525 94, Breen to Airy, 16 April 1840.
70 RGO 6/525 101, Breen to Airy, 11 December 1841.
71 George Biddell Airy, Reductions of the Observations of the Moon Made at the Royal Observatory Greenwich, from 1750 to 1830, London: Palmer & Clayton and J. Murray, 1848.
72 Croarken, op. cit. (2), p. 392.
73 The former can be found among the ‘Correspondence on observatories’ and ‘Letters from observatories’ volumes (RGO 6/140–55), while the latter can be found among the ‘Correspondence of computers’ volume (RGO 6/526).
74 Rogert Hutchins, British University Observatories 1772–1939, Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2016.
75 RGO 6/526 153, Hugh Breen to Airy [undated].
76 RGO 6/526 162, testimonial of George Withersby, 29 February 1844.
77 RGO 6/526 161, testimonial of C.H. Martin, 29 February 1844.
78 RGO 6/526 226, Francis Waters to Airy, 2 November 1846.
79 RGO 6/526 236, Airy to Francis Waters, 13 November 1846.
80 RGO 6/526 260, Airy to secretary of the Guarantee Society, 10 April 1847.
81 RGO 6/526 263, Airy to secretary of the Guarantee Society, 31 May 1854.
82 RGO 6/526 15, John Hartnup to Airy, 1837 November 9; RGO 6/526 49, John William Thomas to Airy [undated, c. June 1838].
83 RGO 6/524 37–8, account relating to the expenditure for the reduction of the Greenwich planetary observations.
84 RGO 6/524 117–18, accounts relating to the expenditure for the Greenwich lunar and planetary reductions.
85 RGO 6/524 119–20, accounts relating to the expenditure for reduction of the Greenwich lunar and planetary observations.
86 Dunkin, op. cit. (48), pp. 71-3; RGO 6/525 15, Thomas to Airy [undated, c. December 1838], original emphasis.
87 RGO 6/526 57, Airy to Stratford, 21 July 1838.
88 RGO 6/526 83, Foley to Airy, 31 December 1838.
89 RGO 6/525 29, Thomas to Airy, 21 January 1839.
90 Thomas to Airy, op. cit. (88).
91 Thomas to Airy, op. cit. (88).
92 Thomas to Airy, op. cit. (88).
93 RGO 6/525 30, Airy to Thomas, 21 January 1839.
94 RGO 6/526 7, Airy to Riddle, 10 March 1836; RGO 6/526 10, Airy to Lord Wrottesley, 9 June 1836.
95 RGO 6/526 14, Thomas to Airy, 23 August 1837.
96 RGO 6/525 5, Airy to Thomas, 2 July 1838.
97 RGO 6/526 57, Airy to Stratford, 21 July 1838.
98 RGO 6/526 82, Airy to James Mackay, 29 December 1838.
99 RGO 6/525 32, Thomas to Airy, 22 January 1839.
100 RGO 6/525 33, Airy to Thomas, 23 January 1839.
101 RGO 5/525 34, Thomas to Airy, 23 January 1839.
102 RGO 6/157, Airy to the Duke of Northumberland, 4 September 1834.