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³ Quine, W.V., ‘Speaking of objects’, Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association (1957–8) 31, pp. 5–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Frank, Barbara E., ‘Field research and making objects speak’, African Arts (2007) 40(1), pp. 13–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Saskia Vermeylen and Jeremy Pilcher, ‘Let the objects speak: online museums and indigenous cultural heritage’, International Journal of Intangible Heritage (2009) 4, pp. 59–78; Murphy, Joseph M., ‘Objects that speak Creole: juxtapositions of shrine devotions at Botánicas in Washington, DC’, Material Religion: Journal of Objects, Art, and Belief (2010) 6(1), pp. 86–108CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Peter N. Miller, ‘How objects speak’, Chronicle of Higher Education, 11 August 2014, at www.chronicle.com/article/how-objects-speak (accessed 24 October 2020).

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⁵ Paine, op. cit. (4), p. 1.

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⁸ Pratt, Mary Louise, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 5–8Google Scholar.

⁹ For more on the contact zone see Joan-Pau Rubiés, ‘Instructions for travelers: teaching the eye to see’, History and Anthropology (1996) 9(2–3), pp. 139–90, 142, 147; Douglas, Bronwen, ‘Seaborne ethnography and the natural history of man’, The Journal of Pacific History (2003) 38(1), pp. 3–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fulford, Tim, Lee, Debbie and Kitson, Peter, Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era: Bodies of Knowledge, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 1–5Google Scholar; Boast, Robin, ‘Neocolonial collaborations: museums as contact zone revisited’, Museum Anthropology (2011) 34(1), pp. 56–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Sera-Shriar, Efram, ‘Tales from Patagonia: Phillip Parker King and early ethnographic observation in British ethnology, 1826–1830’, Studies in Travel Writing (2015) 19(3), pp. 204–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹ Lonetree, Amy, Decolonizing Museums: Representing Native America in National and Tribal Museums, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012, pp. 2–3Google Scholar.

¹² Bleichmar, Daniela, Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions and Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012, pp. 6–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For more on ‘visual epistemologies’ and observational study in Victorian anthropology see Efram Sera-Shriar, The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871, London: Pickering & Chatto, 2013, pp. 1–20. For more secondary literature on the history of scientific observation within the natural and social sciences see Coon, Deborah, ‘Testing the limits of sense and science: American experimental psychologists combat spiritualism, 1800–1920’, American Psychologist (1992) 47(2), pp. 143–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anne Secord, ‘Artisan naturalists: science as popular culture in nineteenth-century England’, PhD dissertation, University of London, 2002, pp. 135–206; Grimshaw, Anna, The Ethnographer's Eye: Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cristina Grasseni (ed.), Skilled Visions: Between Apprenticeship and Standards, Oxford: Berghahn 2007; Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity, New York: Zone Books, 2007; and Lorraine Daston and Elizabeth Lunbeck (eds.), Histories of Scientific Observation, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2011. For observation in sociocultural anthropology see Tedlock, Barbara, ‘From participant observation to observation of participation: the emergence of narrative ethnography’, Journal of Anthropological Research (1991) 47(1), pp. 69–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; George W. Stocking Jr, The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992; Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, ‘Discipline and practice: “the Field” as site, method, and location in anthropology’, in Gupta and Ferguson (eds.), Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997, pp. 1–46; and Henrika Kuklick, ‘After Ishmael: the fieldwork tradition and its future’, in Gupta and Ferguson, op. cit., pp. 47–65.

¹³ Erikson, Patricia Pierce, Voices of a Thousand People: The Makah Cultural and Research Centre, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002, p. 189Google Scholar.

¹⁴ James Clifford and George E. Marcus (eds.), Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986; and David W. Penney, ‘The poetics of museum representations: tropes of recent American Indian art exhibition’, in W. Richard West Jr (ed.), The Changing Presentation of the American Indian: Museums and Native Cultures, Seattle: University of Washington Press 2004, pp. 47–66.

¹⁵ This is an internal document for Science Museum workers and not openly available to the public without request. See anon., Inclusive Displays and Interpretation: Exploring Our Colonial History, London: Science Museum, 2021, pp. 1–12. The Science Museum also has an Open for All Strategy, which is the public-facing policy document that outlines the organization's approach to inclusive displays and interpretation. It can be found on the museum's website: anon., Open for All Strategy, 2022–2025, Science Museum Group (website), at www.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/blog/open-for-all-strategy (accessed 21 September 2022).

¹⁶ Louise Archer, Emily Dawson, Jennifer DeWitt, Amy Seakins and Billy Wong, ‘“Science capital”: a conceptual, methodological, and empirical argument for extending Bourdieusian notions of capital beyond the arts’, Journal of Research in Science Teaching (2015) 52(7), pp. 922–48.

¹⁷ Anon., Inclusive Displays and Interpretation, op. cit. (15), p. 1.

¹⁸ Anon., Inclusive Displays and Interpretation, op. cit. (15), p. 1.

¹⁹ Clifford and Marcus, op. cit. (14) 1986, Penney, op. cit. (14), pp. 47–66; Erikson, op. cit. (13), pp. 186; and Boast, op. cit. (9), pp. 56–70.

²⁰ For more information see anon., Our Vision, Haida Gwaii Museum (website), at http://haidagwaiimuseum.ca/museum/# (accessed 3 November 2020).

²¹ Paine, op. cit. (4), p. 1.

²² Information about the Exploring Medicine exhibition, which forms part of the Wellcome Medical Galleries at the Science Museum in London can be found on the Science Museum's official webpage: anon., Medicine: The Wellcome Galleries, Science Museum Group (website), at www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/see-and-do/medicine-wellcome-galleries (accessed 24 October 2020).

²³ Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization, London: John Murray, 1865, pp. 377–8; George W. Stocking Jr, Victorian Anthropology, New York: The Free Press 1987, p. 160; Bradd Shore, Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture, and the Problem of Meaning, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 15–41; Bradley W. Patterson, Redefining Reason: The Story of the Twentieth Century ‘Primitive’ Mentality Debate and the Politics of Hyperrationality, Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2011, pp. 84–6; and Sera-Shriar, op. cit. (12), pp. 166–7. See also Jacques Waardenburg, Classical Approaches to the Study of Religion: Aims, Methods, and Theories of Research, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1999, pp. 209–19; Neil Roughly (ed.), Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transdisciplinary Perspectives, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000.

²⁴ Efram Sera-Shriar, ‘Historicizing belief: E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture and the evolution of religion’, in Efram Sera-Shriar (ed.), Historicizing Humans: Deep Time, Evolution and Race in Nineteenth-Century British Sciences, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018, 68–90. Tylor outlines his developmental model in the opening pages of his book Primitive Culture: Edward Burnett Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom, 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1871, vol. 1, pp. 5–6. For more on cultural evolutionism see also John W. Burrow, Evolution and Society: A Study in Victorian Social Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966; George W. Stocking Jr, ‘“Cultural Darwinism” and “Philosophical Idealism” in E.B. Tylor’, in Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968, pp. 91–109; Joan Leopold, Culture in Comparative and Evolutionary Perspective: E.B. Tylor and the Making of Primitive Culture, Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1980; and Peter Bowler, The Invention of Progress: The Victorians and the Past, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1989. For a good example of historicization and deep time in an extra-European context see Pratik Chakrabarti, Inscriptions of Nature: Geology and the Naturalization of Antiquity, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2020.

²⁵ Pieterse, op. cit. (6), pp. 163–83; Shelton, op. cit. (6), pp. 64–80; Lonetree, op. cit. (11); and Claire Wintle, Colonial Collecting and Display: Encounters with Material Culture from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2013, pp. 1–17.

²⁶ Lonetree, op. cit. (11), p. 6. Lonetree identifies Paul Chaat Smith as one of the more vocal critics of decolonization efforts in museums. See Paul Chaat Smith, Everything you Know about Indians Is Wrong, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.

²⁷ Raymond Orr, Katelyn Sharratt and Muhammad Iqbal, ‘American Indian erasure and the logic of elimination: an experimental study of depiction and support for resources and rights for tribes’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (2019) 45(11), pp. 2078–99. For more on cultural erasure, especially in museums and heritage, see Helaine Silverman (ed.), Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, and Exclusion, New York: Springer, 2011; Asja Mandić and Patrick Roberts, ‘Museum education in times of radical social change: international perspectives and problems’, Journal of Museum Education (2012) 37(3), pp. 9–14; Carolyne R. Larson, Our Indigenous Ancestors: A Cultural History of Museums, Science, and Identity in Argentina, 1877–1943, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2015; and Brad Buckley and John Conomos, Erasure: The Specter of Cultural Memory, Farringdon: Libri Publishing, 2015.

²⁸ George W. Stocking Jr (ed.), Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983; and Henrika Kuklick, ‘Personal equations: reflections on the history of fieldwork, with special reference to sociocultural anthropology’, Isis (2011) 102(1), pp. 1–33.

²⁹ Ruth B. Phillips, ‘Disrupting past paradigms: the National Museum of the American Indian and the First Peoples Hall at the Canadian Museum of Civilization’, Public Historian (2006) 28(2), pp. 75–80.

³⁰ Lonetree, op. cit. (11), pp. 168–75; Tuck and Yang, op. cit. (6), pp. 1–40.

³¹ Anon., ‘Wooden spirit mask’, object no. A645087, Science Museum Group Collection (catalogue), at https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co105836/wooden-spirit-mask-mask (accessed 24 October 2020).

³² Pavoni, op. cit. (2), pp. 16–21; Collingwood-Whittick, op. cit. (2), pp. 65–82; and Torres, op. cit. (2), pp. 5–22.

³³ Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books, 1973, p. 5.

³⁴ Anon., ‘Mask – 14/1952’, Museums Accession Register (hereafter MAR), 36 vols., Wellcome Library, London, WAHMM/CM/Acc/50, 30: 162, at https://wellcomelibrary.org/item/b18773229#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=165&z=0.1594%2C1.2291%2C0.125%2C0.0785 (accessed 24 October 2020).

³⁵ Efram Sera-Shriar, ‘Civilizing the natives: Richard King and his ethnographic writings on indigenous northerners’, in Edward Jones-Imhotep and Tina Adcock (eds.), Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2018, pp. 43–5. For more on descriptive ethnographic writing see also Michael Bravo, The Accuracy of Ethnoscience: A Study of Inuit Cartography and Cross-cultural Commensurability, Manchester: Manchester Papers in Social Anthropology, 1996; and Bravo, ‘Ethnological encounters’, in N. Jardine, J.A. Secord and E.C. Spary (eds.), Cultures of Natural History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996, pp. 341–9.

³⁶ Arlene Dávila, Culture Works: Value and Mobility across the Neoliberal Americas, New York: New York University Press, 2012, p. 96.

³⁷ Anon., ‘Seattle consignment’, Collection Dossiers, Wellcome Library, London (hereafter WL), WAHMM/CM/Col/90, at https://wellcomelibrary.org/item/b18345931#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=1&z=0.5227%2C0.6107%2C0.125%2C0.0785 (accessed 24 October 2020).

³⁸ Marjorie M. Halpin, ‘William Beynon, ethnographer, Tsimshian, 1888–1958’, in Margot Liberty (ed.), American Indian Intellectuals: 1976 Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society, St Paul: West Publishing Company, 1978, pp. 140–56.

³⁹ Simon Schaffer, Lissa Roberts, Kapil Raj and James Delbourgo (eds.), The Brokered World: Go-Betweens and Global Intelligence, 1770–1820, Cambridge: Science History Publications, 2009. For more on cultural brokers and knowledge formation see Yiheyis T. Maru and Jocelyn Davies, ‘Supporting cross-cultural brokers is essential for employment among Aboriginal people in remote Australia’, Rangeland Journal (2011) 33(4), pp. 327–38; and Sara de Jong, ‘Cultural brokers in post-colonial migration regimes’, in Nikita Dhawan, Elisabeth Fink, Johanna Leinius and Rirhandu Mageza-Barthel (ed.), Negotiating Normativity: Postcolonial Appropriations, Contestations, and Transformations, New York: Springer, 2018, pp. 45–59.

⁴⁰ For more about the history of Ye Olde Curiosity Shop see Kate Duncan, 1001 Curious Things: Ye Olde Curiosity Shop and Native American Art, Seattle: Washington University Press, 2001.

⁴¹ See Duncan, op. cit. (40), p. 119.

⁴² See anon., op. cit. (37); and Dávila, op. cit. (36), p. 96.

⁴³ Anon., ‘Mask– 14/1952’, flimsy inventory cards, WL, WAHMM/CM/Inv/A/265, 377, at https://wellcomelibrary.org/item/b18826416#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0 (accessed 24 October 2020).

⁴⁴ Underwood, E. Ashworth (ed.), Catalogue of an Exhibition Illustrating the Medicine of the Aboriginal Peoples in the British Commonwealth, London: G. Cumberlege, 1952Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Peter Macnair, Robert Joseph and Bruce Grenville, Down from the Shimmering Sky: Masks of the Northwest Coast, Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1998, p. 36. For more on Indigenous conceptions of spiritual transformation see also Seip, Lisa, ‘Transformations of meaning: the life history of a Nuxalk mask’, World Archaeology (1999) 31(2), pp. 272–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Sivasundaram, Sujit, ‘Imperial transgressions: the animal and human in the idea of race’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East (2015) 35(1), pp. 156–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ Stearns, Mary Lee, Haida Culture in Custody: The Masset Band, Seattle: Washington University Press, 1981, pp. 246–82Google Scholar; MacDonald, George F., Haida Monument Art: Villages of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983, pp. 8–14Google Scholar; Boelscher, Marianne, The Curtain Within: Haida Social and Mythical Discourse, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989, pp. 31–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 148, 175; and Collison, Pansy, Haida Eagle Treasure: Traditional Stories and Memories of a Teacher of the Tsath Lanas Clan, Edmonton: Brush Education, 2010Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Sivasundaram, op. cit. (7), pp. 146–58. See also Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, Santa Fe: Clear Light Publishers, 2000; Fan, op. cit. (7), pp. 49–258; Patiniotis, op. cit. (7), pp. 361–84; and Delbourgo, op. cit. (7), pp. 373–99.

⁴⁸ Livingstone, David, Adam's Ancestors: Race, Religion, and the Politics of Human Origins, Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2008, pp. 8–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Efram Sera-Shriar, ‘From the beginning: human history theories in nineteenth-century British sciences’, in Sera-Shriar, Historicizing Humans, op. cit. (24), pp. 1–13.

⁴⁹ Gieryn, Thomas F., Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999Google Scholar; and Visvanathan, Shiv, ‘Alternative science’, Theory, Culture, and Society (2006) 23(2–3), pp. 164–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ For examples of works on alchemy and magic see Cathy Cobb and Harold Goldwhite, Creations of Fire: Chemistry's Lively History from Alchemy to the Atomic Age, New York: Springer, 1995; Lawrence Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013; Chris Gosden, Magic: A History. From Alchemy to Witchcraft, from the Ice Age to the Present, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2020; Jennifer M. Rampling, The Experimental Fire: Inventing English Alchemy, 1300–1700, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2020. For examples of works on psychical research see Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985; Roger Luckhurst, The Invention of Telepathy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002; Shane McCorristine, Spectres of the Self: Thinking about Ghosts and Ghost-Seeing in England, 1750–1920, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010; Christine Ferguson, Determined Spirits: Eugenics, Heredity and Racial Regeneration in Anglo-American Spiritualist Writing, 1848–1930, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012; Peter Lamont, Extraordinary Beliefs: A Historical Approach to a Psychological Problem, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013; Jason Josephson-Storm, The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2017; Courtney Raia, The New Prometheans: Faith, Science, and the Supernatural Mind in the Victorian Fin de Siècle, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019; Richard Noakes, Physics and Psychics: The Occult and the Sciences in Modern Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019; and Efram Sera-Shriar, Psychic Investigators, Anthropology, Modern Spiritualism, & Credible Witnessing in the Late Victorian Age, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2022.

⁵¹ For classic examples of the scholarship on science and religion see Frank Turner, ‘The Victorian conflict between science and religion: a professional dimension’, Isis (1978) 69(3), pp. 356–76; Bernard Lightman, The Origins of Agnosticism: Victorian Unbelief and the Limits of Knowledge, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987; John Headley Brooke and Geoffrey Cantor, ‘Whose science? Whose religion?’, in Brooke and Cantor (eds.), Reconstructing Nature: The Engagement of Science and Religion, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 43–72; Peter Bowler, Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001; Harrison, Peter, and, ‘“Science” “religion”: constructing the boundaries’, Journal of Religion (2006) 86(1), pp. 81–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lightman, Bernard, ‘Victorian sciences and religion: discordant harmonies’, Osiris (2001) 16, pp. 343–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lightman, ‘Does the history of science and religion change depending on the narrator? Some atheist and agnostic perspectives’, Science and Christian Beliefs (2012) 24, pp. 149–68; John Headley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Matthew Stanley, Huxley's Church and Maxwell's Demon: From Theistic Science to Naturalistic Science, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2014; and Peter Harrison, The Territories of Science and Religion, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2015.

⁵² Wyatt, Gary, Spirit Faces: Contemporary Masks of the Northwest Coast, Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1994Google Scholar; and Glass, Aaron, Objects of Exchange: Social and Material Transformation on the Late Nineteenth-Century Northwest Coast, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011Google Scholar.

⁵³ Macnair, Joseph and Grenville, op. cit. (45), p. 10.

⁵⁴ Michael Frisch, A Shared Authority: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and Public History, Albany: SUNY Press, 1990; Claire Bishop, ‘The social turn: collaboration and its discontents’, Artforum International (2006) 44, pp. 178–83; Bill Adair, Benjamin Filene and Laura Koloski (eds.), Letting Go? Sharing Historical Authority in a User-Generated World, Philadelphia: Pew Centre for Arts and Heritage, 2011; and Held, Mirjam B.E., ‘Decolonizing research paradigms in the context of settler colonialism: an unsettling, mutual, and collaborative effort’, International Journal of Qualitative Methods (2019) 18, pp. 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁵ Capra, Fritjof, The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture, New York: Bantam Books, 1982Google Scholar; Walker, Polly O., ‘Journeys around the medicine wheel: a story of indigenous research in a Western university’, Australian Journal of Indigenous Education (2001) 29(2), pp. 18–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Getty, Grave A., ‘The journey between Western and indigenous paradigms’, Journal of Transcultural Nursing (2010) 21(1), pp. 5–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Walker, Polly O., ‘Indigenous paradigm research’, in Bretherton, Diane and Law, Siew Fang (eds.), Methodologies in Peace Psychology, New York: Springer, 2015, pp. 159–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁶ Lonetree, op. cit. (11), pp. 6–7.

⁵⁷ Miller, Susan A., ‘Native America writes back: the origin of the indigenous paradigm in historiography’, Wicazo Sa Review (2008) 23(2), pp. 9–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁸ Miller, op. cit. (57), pp. 14–18.