1. A shortened and modified version of this article was read in Greek at the Fifth Conference of the Linguistics Department of the University of Thessaloniki, 2-4 May 1984. Grateful thanks are due to Margaret Alexiou, Richard Clogg and Tassos Christidis for helpful comments on an earlier draft.

2. [ Kyriazidis, N.I. and Kazazis, I.N.], J. Brèhier (Athens 1983)Google Scholar. For a brief account in English of the project, see Kazazis, J., ‘Constructing a computer-assisted complete index to Makriyannis’ Memoirs’, 22 (1983) 27-33 Google Scholar.

3. Some dramatic works of the Cretan Renaissance have been processed by computer; they include The Sacrifice of Abraham (see Philippides, Dia, ‘Computers and Modern Greek’, 17 (1981) 5-13 Google Scholar) and the plays of Chortatsis (although the latter project, undertaken by Rosemary Bancroft-Marcus, was abandoned because of technical difficulties). On the other hand, word-lists of several Modern Greek poets have been produced in recent years without the aid of a computer.

4. (Athens 1983) (hereafter, Makriyannis, Visions). A separate volume offers a facsimile of the autograph manuscript of the work: (Athens 1983). There is also a small booklet published by the Cultural Foundation of the National Bank of Greece (which financed the edition), with brief but useful contributions by Sfyroeras, V., Savvidis, G.P. and Svoronos, N.: Panagopoulos, S.P. and others, (Athens 1984)Google Scholar.

5. In an article in the newspaper 16 September 1945. See Politis, L., foreword to Makriyannis, Visions, 7, and Katsimbalis, G.K., (Athens 1957)Google Scholar, item 72. Theotokas’s article is reprinted in his (Athens n.d.) 163-6.

6. For the relevant facts and references see Politis, L. in Makriyannis, Visions, 7 ffGoogle Scholar.

7. First edition: (Athens 1907). On the fate of the manuscript see Papakostas, A.N. in Makriyannis, Visions, 27 Google Scholar ff.

8. Visions 41.15-16 and elsewhere. All references to the text of this work are by page and line number of the Papakostas edition, but Greek quotations are transferred into the monotonic system of orthography.

9. Visions 41.24-42.2 Cf. G.P. Savvidis, in Panagopoulos, S.P. and others, Ksineva, 21-2 Google Scholar.

10. Cf.Mastrodimitris, P.D., 18.2 (1976) 225-40, especially pp. 232, 236-7.Google Scholar

11. Vlachoyannis, Y., 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Athens 1947)Google Scholar, A 84 (hereafter, Vlachoyannis, Memoirs). There is an English translation of the greater part of Makriyannis’s text: Makriyannis, The Memoirs of General Makriyannis 1797-1864. Edited and translated by Lidderdale, H.A.. Foreword by CM. Woodhouse (London 1966)Google Scholar.

12. Theotokas, G., 30 (1941) 723 Google Scholar. The article is reprinted in his 141-63 (see p. 162 for the reference in question).

13. Kyriakopoulos, K.A., (Athens 1976), Ch. Ill, 53-70 Google Scholar, entitled .

14. Dimaras, K.Th., 4th ed. (Athens 1968) 259 Google Scholar.

15. Michailidis, G., 47 (1959) 442-3 Google Scholar.

16. Sherrard, P., The Wound of Greece. Studies in Neo-Hellenism (London/Athens 1978) 55 Google Scholar. A Greek version of the same essay is published in Sherrard, P., (Athens 1971) 141-65 Google Scholar.

17. Seferis, G., 4th ed. (Athens 1981) I 228-63 Google Scholar. The quoted translations are from Seferis, G., On the Greek Style. Translated by Warner, Rex and Th. D. Frangopoulos with an introduction by Rex Warner (London 1967) 35-6, 63, 55-6 and 65 Google Scholar.

18. 442.

19. (Athens n.d.)

20. See, for example, Vlachoyannis, Memoirs, A 87, and Michailidis, , “ 441 Google Scholar. Makriyannis criticizes himself for some of these shortcomings in his prologue: Memoirs A 105.8-9, 25-7. All references to the text of the Memoirs are by volume (A or B), page and line of the Vlachoyannis 1947 edition. Passages quoted are adapted into the monotonic system with some modernization of spelling.

21. Seferis, , On the Greek Style, 54 Google Scholar. The sentence continues: “if not the greatest — since we also have Papadiamantis”.

22. Magda Stroungari’s corrective study, 8 (1979) 111-215, carefully documents the extent of learned influence on Makriyannis’s language, but in some respects she overstates her case, by regarding as learnedisms some purely graphic peculiarities of Makriyannis’s hand (such as final — v) and failing to make sufficient allowance for conservative dialect elements. For informative discussion on this point I am grateful to Christoforos Charalambakis.

23. See, for instance, Paraschos, K., 2 (1944) 17-21 Google Scholar.

24. Theotokas, , 148-9 Google Scholar.

25. On the stages of writing, see Vlachoyannis, Memoirs, A 89 ff., Asdrachas, and Lidderdale, Makriyannis, xii. There are some differences between the three accounts, and many questions of detailed chronology remain unclear.

26. For an approach to this question, see Moskof, K., 3rd ed. (Athens 1978)Google Scholar.

27. My figures are now confirmed by the work of Kyriazidis and Kazazis (To , A 60-1). The figure for patris/patrida of course includes its use for the individual’s home town, village or region — as opposed to the national fatherland. A rough count reveals 27 instances where patrida refers indisputably to the “local” fatherland. I have chosen to render patrida throughout as “fatherland” to preserve the Greek etymological association.

28. In about 30 cases the word means “compatriot” in the narrow sense of “from the same village, town or region”.

29. According to Kryiazidis-Kazazis (To A 25 and A 69) their frequency is as follows: .

30. To give a rough idea of the frequency of the “fatherland” words, it may be noted that the text of the Visions runs to 178 pages (of fairly large print).

31. Memoirs A 113.23 and 116.32. The second case is very definitely a geographical term: It might be argued, however, that in the first passage — (words attributed to Kapodistrias) — the word Ellas is employed to denote the idea of a free Greek state.

32. The abandonment of Romios in favour of Ellinas at this point in the narrative is noted by Skiotis, D., ‘The Nature of the Modern Greek Nation: the Romaic Strand’, in The “Past” in Medieval and Modern Greek Culture, ed. Vyronis, S. (Malibu 1978) 161 Google Scholar. For a critical bibliography on Romios and related terms see Mandouvalou, M., 22 (1983) 34-72 Google Scholar.

33. As already pointed out Ellinas occurs 21 times; Romios and its feminine counterparts occur 23 times, of which seven are in the narration of events up to the outbreak of the War of Independence. (The last of these is in the account of the beginning of hostilities at Patras: A 119.17.) These seven instances occur in the first 14 pages of text (excluding the address to the readers). The remaining 16 occurrences of the word (spread over more than 420 pages of text) will be fully discussed below.

34. A 246.2: Compare the use of Mioipi for Egypt in the previous line.

35. Other cases where Makriyannis assumes a non-Greek point-of-view and employs the word Romios are: A 247.17, (Makriyannis is addressing Ibrahim); B 27.30, (the Greek wife of Ali Pasha).

36. Similarly, a Greek who comes over from the Turkish camp with intelligence about Turkish losses at the Battle of Bostania is a Romios: (A 309.6) — in Lidderdale’s translation (Makriyannis, 129) “a Greek who did homage to the Sultan”.

37. B 103.28-9: The incident took place in 1840, when Greece refused to ratify a commercial treaty with Turkey; see Dakin, D., The Unification of Greece 1770-1923 (London 1972) 73 Google Scholar.

38. A 251.31-2, in Lidderdale’s translation (Makriyannis, 81).

39. B 210.17-18, again in Lidderdale’s translation (p. 214).

40. B 109.19-20:

41. It has been shown that the agonistes deliberately adopted for themselves the ethnic name Ellines and renounced the label Romioi from the very beginning of the Revolution. See I. Kakridis, Th., (Athens 1963) 78 and 81 Google Scholar (unavailable to me, but quoted by Tsaousis, D.G. in (Athens 1983) 16 [])Google Scholar.

42. For example: A 160.16, 161.6, 237.2, 282.7, 306.16, 311.11, 311.19.

43. Examples are: A 234.16, B 9.14, 55.10-11.

44. Examples: B 51.17, 53.7, 186.16. (The word does not occur in the Memoirs.)

45. B 51.33-5. See Lidderdale, , Makriyannis, 145 Google Scholar. The whole passage to the end of Book II (ibid. pp. 145-9) reveals much about Makriyannis’s attitudes to the Hellenic past and to the contemporary European powers.

46. A 256.5-8. The translation is Lidderdale’s (Makriyannis, 85).

47. An analysis of Ellinas, Romios and related words in the Visions would not contribute significantly to the present discussion and therefore has not been attempted here.

48. A 144.29-30 and 202.22.

49. The remaining uses of TO Pωμαúko occur at: A 117.29, 119.22 (both before 1821), 143.5 (here the view-point is non-Greek) and 190.7 (with implied criticism of the rapaciousness of his troops). After 1821 the term is never used without irony or sarcasm.

50. Cf. Visions 206.32, In the last two cases the national fatherland is meant.

51. The sense of “national fatherland” is, however, overwhelmingly predominant (see note 27 above).

52. See note 28 above.

53. For example, Makriyannis writes of Skarmitzos: (A 126.5-7).

54. In documents of the Philiki Etaireia we find a distinction drawn between (the individual’s “local fatherland”) and (the “national fatherland”). See Frangos, George D., ‘The Philiki Etairia: A Premature National Coalition’, in Clogg, R. (ed.), The Struggle for Greek Independence (London 1973) 87-103, especially 98-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Once only, in the introduction to the Memoirs, Makriyannis uses such a phrase for Greece: (A 107.15). He does some half a dozen times employ the adverb (a favourite word of his) in close connection with (e.g. B. 101.12, ), but the meaning is hardly the same as the phrase of the Etairists.

55. Cf. A 114.20-1. Describing his decision to take the oath of initiation, Makriyannis represents himself as having weighed up all the dangers and struggles that lay ahead, before concluding: In fact there seems to be nothing in the surviving texts of either the First Oath or the Great Oath that corresponds to Makriyannis’s phrase linking fatherland and religion. The texts are conveniently available in English translation in Clogg, R. (ed.), The Movement for Greek Independence 1770-1821. A collection of documents (London 1976) 175-82 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a different version of the oaths, see Vranousis, L.I. and Kamarianos, N. (edd.), (Athens 1964) 103 ffGoogle Scholar.

56. The list embraces the following: “humanity in general” (5 times), “all the nations”, “those you pray for”, “the innocent”, “our local affairs”, “the churches you intend to build”, “these unfortunates”, “the Constitution”, “the King” (once each). The two commonest types of addition are discussed above.

57. These usages take a stage further his very frequent use of the possessive uou with patrida and thriskeia in both the texts examined here.

58. It is not suggested, of course, that the collocation is unique, let alone original, to Makriyannis. It is interesting to note the same phrase in the .

59. Eight times in the Memoirs, six in the Visions.

60. Compare the words of a character in a late-nineteenth century short story, who, referring to his service in the War of Independence, exclaims triumphantly: ( Karkavitsas, A., 3rd ed. (Athens 1925) 97 Google Scholar.

61. B 107.29 and 217.10 Cf. Korais’s use of in a similar sense in his (1818); quoted by Henderson, G.P., The Revival of Greek Thought 1620-1830 (Edinburgh and London 1971) 159 Google Scholar. And Book 5 of the .

62. Cf. the same phrase, used three times by Spyridon Trikoupis in a speech of May 1825 ( Koumarianou, A., A 177 Google Scholar). In the Memoirs the verb occurs 126 times and the noun 30 times. Kyriazidis and Kazazis do not offer a word frequency list, but from their complete list of words (To vol. A) it may be deduced that is the thirty-eighth most common verb, following (in descending order of frequency): .

63. The phrase occurs about eleven times.

64. Some examples of personification of (and apostrophe to) thepatrida: Makriyannis thanks it for honouring him with the rank of general (A 108.14-16), asks it to bless Gogos (A 128.5-6), bemoans the activities of the Areios Pagos (A154.23-31), stresses the fatherland’s debt to Kostas Lagoumitsis (A 278.4-6), and laments its lack of good rulers (B 91.8-10).

65. Typical oaths are: (A 136.12, 139.8-9, 226.5, 253.14-15), vα (B 27.21-2, 121.12-13), (B 139.18).

66. It does not occur in Book 1 at all. Of the eight occurrences in the Memoirs five are qualifying patrida.

67. Other epithets qualifying patrida in the Visions are: and .

68. Asdrachas, S., 533 Google Scholar. The Visions is literally an unfinished work, unless we assume that further leaves of the manuscript have been lost. See Sfyroeras, V., in Panagopoulos, S.P. and others, , 18, and Savvidis, G.P., ibid., 21 Google Scholar.

69. It is interesting to note that patriotis, used ironically, is almost always accompanied by the adjective or some other positive attribute: frequently two of these adjectives are coupled together.

70. is a common doublet in the Memoirs, occurring some 13 times; in four further instances a third quality is added: The doublet is also found three times in the Visions, and one more time with the addition of TiOiKfj.

71. Koumanoudis, S.A., Euvaycoyn 787 Google Scholar, gives Rigas Velestinlis as the first user of the word.

72. Vranousis, L. (ed.), 2 vols. (Athens 1968), B 728, lines 21-4 Google Scholar.

73. Ibid., B 758.

74. Similarly the author of the But he does use the adjective to qualify nouns such as A useful critical bibliography on this work is: Mandouvalou, M., 13 (1979) 12-25 Google Scholar.

75. Some typical examples from the newspaper will be found in Koumarianou, A., B 24, 30, 75. The same newspaper carried an article on the meaning of patrida and patriotismos in its issue of 11-15 April 1825 (ibid. pp. 236-9)Google Scholar.

76. Fletcher, D., ‘The emergence of patriotisme’, Semasia 4 (1977) 5 Google Scholar.

77. Space has precluded an examination of the word itself, which Makriyannis uses 72 times in the Memoirs. It is, perhaps, for Makriyannis, not so sharply defined a concept as patrida or thriskeia, but he does give some definitions: (A 107.10-13). He insists on the need for good administration and the rule of law (A 219.6-7), and often stresses the necessity for Greece, even after Independence, to become a nation, “like the other nations”. The pre-requisites are the primary virtues of religion and patriotism, but also good leaders, sound laws and a unified society.

78. Vlachoyannis is reported to have described it as “the work of a madman” see Politis, L. in Visions, 14-15 Google Scholar. More balanced views will be found in S.P. Panagopoulos and others, See also Georgousopoulos, K., (20 May 1984)Google Scholar.

79. Such influences, of course, account for Makriyannis’s occasional use of learned linguistic forms and vocabulary, which have been analysed in detail by M. Stroungari (see above, note 22). The extent to which he, consciously or unconsciously, admitted this influence in the vocabulary examined here may be gauged — somewhat impressionistically — from his choice of alternative nominative and genitive forms of the noun , as shown below:

80. A few examples are given by Michailidis, G., 439 Google Scholar.

81. Since this article was completed, the periodical has published a special issue devoted to Makriyannis. Among many interesting contributions, of particular relevance to the present subject is that of Simopoulos, K., 101 (5 September 1984) 50-3 Google Scholar.