We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 July 2009
Toward the close of the fourteenth century the Dutch mystic and revival preacher Gerhard Groote inaugurated in the Low Countries the religious movement known as the Devotio Moderna or the New Piety. Forced into silence by his enemies among the clergy, the popular preacher was devoting himself to the problems of giving permanent form and organization to his scattered groups of followers when death prematurely ended his career in 1384. But the small circles of pious men and women who under his inspiration had begun to practice the common life in imitation (so they believed) of the Christians of New Testament times, found a capable leader in Florentius Radewyns, the trusted friend and disciple of Groote and the leader of the Deventer circle of Groote's followers. In 1386 some of this group, with Rade-wyn's approval, founded the monastery of Windesheim, near Zwolle. This act constituted a definite division of the Devotio Moderna into two branches. One, with Windesheim as center, became monastic in character and was knolwn after 1395 as the Congregation of the Augustinian Canons Regular of Windesheim, The other, which reflected more nearly the ideals of Groote, continued the non-monastic traditions of the parent house in Deventer and took the name of the Brethren of the Common Life. The Congregation of Windesheim spread rapidly and numbered in the course of the fifteenth century many houses in the Low Countries and in Germany. The Brethren of the Common Life, on the other hand, because of their refusal to take monastic vows and because of their insistence upon manual labor as the chief means of financial support, encountered determined opposition from the regular clergy and therefore could not rival the development of their more acceptable brothers of Windesheim.
1 As principal works on the Devotio Moderna may be mentioned Hyma, A.. The Christian Renaissance (New York, 1925)Google Scholar; and The Brethren of the Common Life (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1950)Google Scholar; Acquoy, J. G. R., Het Klooster te Windesheim en zijn Invloed, 3 vols. (Utrecht, 1875–1880)Google Scholar; and Mestwerdt, P., Die Anfaenge des Erasmus, Humanismus und “Devotio Moderna” (Leipzig, 1917).Google Scholar
2 The principal studies on the Devotio Moderna in Germany are: Barnikol, A., Studien zur Geschichte der Brueder vom Gemeinsamen Leben (Tübingen, 1917)Google Scholar; Loeffler, K. L., “Heinrich von Ahaus und die Brueder vom gemeinsamen Leben in Deutschland,” Historisches Jahrbuch der Goerres-Gesellschaft, vol. 30 (Munich, 1909), pp. 762–798Google Scholar; and Schulze, L., “Brueder des gemeinsamen Lebens,” Real-Encyklopaedie fuer protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 3rd ed., vol. 3 (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 472–507.Google Scholar
3 The annals of Peter Dieburg have been edited by Doebner, R., Annalen und Akten der Brueder des gemeinsamen Leobens im Lüchtenhofe zu Hildesheim, in Quellen und Darstellungen sur Geschichte Niedersachsens, vol. 9 (Leipzig, 1903).Google Scholar Our passage is found on page 109.
4 See Barnikol, A., “Luther in Magdeburg und die dortige Bruederschule,” Theologische Arbeiten aus dem rheinischen wissenchaftlichen Prediger-Verein, Neue Folge, Heft 17 (Tübingen, 1917), pp. 1–62.Google Scholar
5 Among more recent studies on Biel may be mentioned: Feckes, C., “Gabriel Biel,” Tübinger Theologische Quartals-schrift, Vol. 109 (Tübingen, 1927)Google Scholar; Hermelink, H., Die Theologische Fakultaet in Tübingen vor der Reformation, 1477–1534 (Tübingen, 1906)Google Scholar; Joh. Haller, , Die Anfaenge der Universitaet Tübingen 1477–1537 (Stuttgart, 1927), Part 1, pp. 153–172, Part 2, pp. 54–64.Google Scholar
6 A good collection of Biel's sermons was published in 1583 at Brescia. His pulpit contributions have been analyzed carefully by Plitt, G., Gabriel Biel als Pre-diger (Erlangen, 1879).Google Scholar
7 The tract bore the title: Defensorium Obedientiae Apostolicae ad Pium papam II destinatum et ab eodem approbatum. It is often included in collections of Biel's sermons.
8 The nature of the papal favor is not known.
9 Most authorities hold that when the pope refused Biel's request to join an order the latter compromised by joining the Brethren. The sources are silent on the point.
10 The house was founded in 1463.
11 Wolf Memory Book, fol. 20r: “Primus inceptor vite communis fratrum in Almania.” The Wolf Memory Book is found in the Prussian State Archives in Coblenz, Abt. 701, Ms 92.
12 The entry in the Wolf Memory Book deals with Benedict of Helmstadt and reads: “Eodem anno 13 die Augusti obiit pater benedictus in Mergendayl primus pater in Almania superiori par patrem Gabrielem vocatus a domo Widennach in Colonia, dum pater Gabriel adhuc asset predicator maioris ecclesie Moguntine et obtinuisset domum Mergendayl a reverendissimo Moguntino episcopo eundem patrem Benedictum ibidem instituit pro statu nostro erigendo eciam in Almania superiori sicut efficaciter fecit.” fol. 30 r.
13 The title runs: Tractatus magistri Gabrielis Byell de communi vita clericorum. The original is lost but a well-done copy is found in the Royal Library in the Hague, Ms. No. 75, G. 58, Fols 1 r.—21v. Cited hereafter as Tractatus.
14 Tractatus, fol. 1 r.
15 De Civitate Dei, Book 19: “Ordo est parium dispariumque rerum sua quique loca tribuens dispositio.”
16 Acts of the Apostles, Ch. IV; 32, 34, 35.
17 Tractatus, fol. 1 v.
18 Tractatus, fol. 2 r.
19 Tractatus, fol. 3 r. and v.
20 Tractatus, fol. 4 v.
21 Tractatus, fols. 5 v. and 6 v.
22 Tractatus, fols. 6 v.—9 v.
23 Tractatus, fol. 11 r.
24 Biel, however, was aware that the monastery of Windesheim was founded to meet the demands on the part of some of Groote's followers for a more strictly regulated life than that practised in Deventer by the Brethren. Tractatus, fol. 12 v.
25 Tractatus, fols. 13 r. to 21 v.
26 Tractatus, fol. 15 r.
27 This may be more than a coincidence. The Brethren were fundamentally copyists and the introduction of printing deprived them of one important means of existence. They tried printing with only partial success.
28 Tractatus, fols. 20 v., 21 r.
29 This was the third settlement of the Brethren in Upper-Rhenish Germany.
30 The Copialbuch of the house reposed before the late war in the Prussian State Archives in Darmstadt, Abt. V, Repertorium, Hs. 50, fols. 1–90. The quotation is from fol. 32 r. Quoted as Copialbuch.
31 Copialbuch, fol. 31 r. and v. The source has been edited and explained by Diehl, W. in Die Schulordnungen des Grossherzogtums Hessen: Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica (Berlin, 1903), vol. 27, No. 101, p. 485.Google Scholar
32 Ibid.
33 DrKraetzinger, , “Versuch einer Geschichte des Kugelhauses zu Butzbach” in Archiv fuer hessische Geschichte und Altertums-Kunde, vol. X (Darmstadt, 1863), p. 82.Google Scholar
34 Biel had been the moving spirit in organizing the Upper-Rhenish houses into a General Chapter in 1471.
35 A copy of action taken is found in the Hauptstaatsarchiv in Stuttgart, Ms. W. R. 14068.
36 A careful record of the ceremonies, in Biel's own hand, is found in the Hauptstaatsarchiv, Stuttgart, Ms. W. R. 14069.
37 These houses have received inadequate treatment in Meyer, Otto's Die Brueder des Gemeinsamen Lebens in Württemberg 1477–1517 (Stuttgart, 1913).Google Scholar
38 The title read: Sacri Canonis Missae Expositio. The first edition appeared on November 14, 1488 from John Otmar in Reutlingen. The work consisted of eighty-nine chapters of unequal length and was probably a revision of the classroom lectures.
39 The work went through more than a dozen editions, the last being in 1612 from Brescia. Several abbreviated editions appeared also, the last one coming from Antwerp in 1575.
40 Epithoma Pariter et Collectorium Circa Quattuor Sententiarum Libros was the Original title. It is generally referred to as the Commentarium. The edition of 1574 from Brescia has been used in this study.
41 This statement is not quite correct for Biel did not complete his Commentary on the fourth book. That was done by Wendel Steinbaek, his capable disciple and successor as rector in the Brethren-House at Schoenbueh. Steinbaek then published the work in 1501.
42 “Propositio scibilis (scientia proprie dicta) est propositio necessaria -dubitabilis nata fieri evidens per propositiones necessarias evidenter per discursum syllogisticum ad eas applicatas.”—Biel, , CommentariumGoogle Scholar, Prolog, q. 2, a. 1, n. 1 and a. 2C. In quoting Biel, I have adopted the one commonly used by scholars, which follows Biel's own outline.
43 See Haller, J., Die Universitaet Tübingen, vol. 1, p. 163Google Scholar for a brief statement of this problem.
44 “Universalis est conceptus mentis id est actus cognoseendi, qui est vera qualitas in anima et res singularis significans univoce plura singularia aeque primo.”— Biel, , CommentariumGoogle Scholar, Bk. I, d. 2, q. 8C and L.
45 Ibid., Bk. II, d. 16, q. and a. 2, conclusa 2.
46 Ibid., Bk. I, d. 2, q. 10, a, 2, conclusa 1.
47 Ibid., Bk. I, d. 2, q. 10, a. 2, conclusa 3.
48 Ibid., Bk. III, d. 23, q. 2, a. 2, conclusa 1.
49 Ibid., Bk. III, d. 23, q. 2, a. 1, n. 1D.
50 Ibid., Bk. I, d. 17, q. a. 3.
51 Ibid., Bk. IV, d. 4, q. 1, a. 1, n. 3.
52 “Unde sola voluntas divina est prima regula omnis justitiae.”—Ibid., Bk. I, d. 43. q. 1, a, coroll. 4.
53 “Non enim habet (Deus) aliam regulam, cui teneatur se conformare, sed ipsa divina voluntas est regula omnium contingentium. Nee enim, quia aliquid rectum est aut justum, ideo Deus vult, sed quia deus vult, ideo justum et rectum.” —Ibid., Bk. I. 17, q. 1, a. 3, coroll. 1.
54 Ibid., Bk. III, d. 3, q. 1, a. 2, eonclusa 1.
55 A full discussion of Biel's theology lies outside of the purpose of this study. Only a few general statements will be given. See Feckes, C., (Die Rechtfertigungslehre Gabriel Biels)Google Scholar for an adequate presentation of this subject.
56 See Feekes, C., op cit., 27–39.Google Scholar
57 Ibid., 53–57.
58 Biel defines the sacrament of penance thus: “Poenitentiae sacramentum est absolutio hominis poenitentis facta a sacerdote jurisdictionem habente sub certa verborum formula cum debita intentione prolata ex institutione divina efficaciter significantium absolutionem animae a peccatis.”—Commentarium, Bk. IV, d. 14, q. 2, a. 1, n. 1.
59 “Contritio est dolor pro peccato voluntarie assumptus cum proposito confitendi et satisfaciendi.”—Ibid., Bk. IV, d. 23, q. 2, a. 1, n. 1B. He defines attrition as an “insufficient sorrow for sins.”
60 Biel recognized that several opinions existed among theologians on this subject: “Licet apud omnes concedatur, quod per sacramentum poenitentiae deleatur culpa, quomodo tamen ista deletio intelligenda sit, diversae sunt opiniones”—Commentarium, Bk. IV, d. 14, q. 2, a. 1, n. 2.
61 See Feckes, C., op. cit., 72–75.Google Scholar
62 Biel distinguishes between absolute and contingent predestination. Both are acts or fiats of God, hence the difference is largely one of terminology and logic.
63 Official copy of the founding documents, as well as the statutes of the house, is found in the Hauptstaatsarchiv, Stuttgart, Rep. A 522 B 1.
64 The only source for this date is The Wolf Memory Book, fol. 20 r.
65 Ibid.
