1. For this phrase, the author would like to credit Geoffrey Lloyd, as well as an anonymous reviewer for Early China.

2. Qingfan, Guo , Zhuangzi jishi (Taipei: Dingyuan, 2001), 947–49Google Scholar. All translations are my own unless otherwise noted.

3. Zhuangzi jishi, 1098.

4. Zhuangzi jishi, 949–50.

5. “Harmonize [antinomies] with the heavenly divisions; let them spread out through [such harmonization], and thereby will years draw to a close” (Zhuangzi jishi, 108).

6. See, for example, Graham, A.C., “How much of Chuang Tzu did Chuang Tzu Write?” in Studies in Chinese Philosophy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1986), 294 Google Scholar. More recently, Cui Dahua has suggested the reverse, namely that the passage cited in n.5 is an editorial interpolation from the “Yu yan” chapter. See Cui, , Zhuangzi yanjiu (Taipei: Wenshizhe, 1999), 94 Google Scholar. However, Cui does not attempt to account for the other similarities in the speculations on language in the “Yu yan” and “Qiwu lun” passages, and most studies dedicated to the zhiyan continue to treat the passage as “authentic” Zhuangzi.

7. Zhuangzi jishi, 948.

8. Zhuangzi jishi, 947.

9. Dalin, Lü , Kaogu tu , Yingyin Wenyuan Siku quanshu (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu, 1983), 840.260 Google Scholar; Chongxiu Xuanhe bogu tu , ed. Fu, Wang , Yingyin Wenyuan Siku quanshu (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu, 1983), 840.720–21Google Scholar.

10. Shizheng, Liang et al., Xiqing gujian , Siku yishu congshu (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1991), 841.763–74Google Scholar.

11. Hanyu da cidian (Shanghai: Hanyu da cidian, 1995), 1.918 Google Scholar.

12. “The zhi is a funnel, and zhiyan is funnel-like language. A funnel is hollow and bottomless, so that if one pours in water, it immediately leaks out … what Zhuangzi means by the zhiyan is that his language is without fixed opinion, like a funnel – it is simply channeling the sound of nature” (Zhang Mosheng, Zhuangzi xinshi , cited in Guying, Chen, Zhuangzi jinzhu jinyi [Taipei: Taiwan shangwu, 1977], 793)Google Scholar. Zhang's explication is apparently an attempt to reconcile Guo with a passage from the Han Feizi which will be discussed below.

13. “In my opinion, the zhi is a wine vessel, and when the zhi is full, it will naturally overflow. Hence Zhuangzi is using the “zhiyan” to explain that it isn't that his discourse is leaky, but that–because centerless–it flows naturally” (Chen Guying, Zhuangzi jinzhu jinyi, 793).

14. “‘Spillover’ saying, the most important, is traditionally, and this time plausibly, supposed to be named after a kind of vessel designed to tip and right itself when filled too near the brim. It is speech characterized by the intelligent spontaneity of Taoist behavior in general, a fluid language which keeps its equilibrium through changing meanings and viewpoints” ( Graham, A.C., Chuang-tzu: the Inner Chapters [London: Allen and Unwin, 1981], 107)Google Scholar.

15. Mingguang, Fan and Yaoke, Zang , “Huangmiu yu jietuo–shixi Zhuangzi de jietuo zhi dao” , Luoyang daxue xuebao 19.1 (2004), 52 Google Scholar.

16. Binghai, Li , “ Zhuangzi de zhiyan yu xian-Qin zhujiu ci” , Shehui kexue zhanxian 1996.1, 191–96Google Scholar.

17. Limin, Gao , “Yuyan de zhaoxia–Zhuangzi zhiyan chuyi”, Lanzhou xuekan 2005.2, 50 Google Scholar

18. Mei, Zhang , “Chonggu Zhuangzi de yuyan yishu – zhiyan” , Dongfang luntan 2003.2, 68 Google Scholar.

19. Xianguang, Xiong and Jin, Chen , “ Zhuangzi mingming yishu shitan” , Xinan shifan daxue xuebao 1998.4, 85 Google Scholar.

20. Tucker, John Allen, “Goblet Words: The Chuang-lzu's Hermeneutic on Words and the Tao,” Chinese Culture 25.4 (1984), 26 Google Scholar.

21. Wang, Youru “The Strategies of ‘Goblet Words’: Indirect Communication in the Zhuangzi,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 31.2 (2004), 195–218 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22. Wu, Kuang-ming, “Goblet Words, Dwelling Words, Opalescent Words,” The journal of Chinese Philosophy 15.1 (1988), 6–7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23. For example, the Wild Words from an Arts Park (Yiyuan zhiyan ) of Wang Shizhen (1526–90), or the Wild Words on Playing Stringed [Instruments] (Caoman zhiyan ) of mathematician Mei Wending (1633–1721).

24. Qiyou, Chen , Han Feizi jishi (Taipei: Guojia, 1983), 735–36Google Scholar.

25. Shiji (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1982), 7.312 Google Scholar.

26. Shi ji, 8.386.

27. Han shu (1962; Beijing: Zhonghua, 1975), 1.66 Google ScholarPubMed.

28. Han shu, 1.66.

29. Xuanzhi, Yang Luoyang qielan ji jiaoshi , ed. Zumo, Zhou (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1963), 165 Google Scholar.

30. Li Binghai has identified the Warring States zhi with the Shang and Western Zhou zhi , usually described as bronze ware (Li, “Zhuangzi de zhiyan,” 192). The identification may be doubtful. However, if one were to accept it, then there are numerous references to the vessel in other relevant early texts. Most of these speak of the vessel as a high-class goblet, just as Sima Qian and Ban Gu later do of the other zhi . For example, the Record of Rites (Liji ) dictates, “The venerable are to raise goblets, and the subalterns to raise horns” (Liji Zheng zhu [Taipei: Xuehai, 1979], 7.307). For a description and illustration of the zhi , see Baojun, Guo , Shang Zhou tongqi qun zonghe yanjiu (Beijing: Wenwu, 1981), 144 Google Scholar and accompanying plates.

31. Shuowen jiezi (Taipei: Dingwen, 1993), 10.1084 Google Scholar.

32. “Ni ‘Xinglu nan’ shiba shou” , Bao Canjun jizhu (Taipei: Muduo, 1982), 224 Google Scholar.

33. “Duange xing” , Zhang Ji jizhu , ed. Dongsheng, Li (Hefei: Huangshan, 1989), 73 Google Scholar.

34. “Shaonian xing” , Du Mu quanji (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1997), 54 Google Scholar

35. “Shou Zhang fuzhou liushiyi shi xu” , Baishazi quanji (Taipei: Heluo tushu, 1974), 1.247 Google Scholar.

36. Zhuangzi jishi, 947.

37. Xunzi , ed. Jilang, Liao (Taipei: Guoli bianyiguan, 2002), 2.2145 Google Scholar.

38. Xu Lingfu , Tongxuan zhenjing (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1985), 56.

39. Hebei sheng wenwu yanjiusuo xiaozu, Dingzhou Han jian zhengli , “Dingzhou Xi-Han Zhongshan Huaiwang mu zhujian Wenzi shiwen” , Wenwu 1995.12, 27–34 Google Scholar. There is currently no published scholarly translation or monograph on the Wenzi in English, apart from two graduate theses ( Els, Paul van, “The Wenzi: Creation and Manipulation of a Chinese philosophical text” [Ph.D. diss., Leiden, 2006 Google Scholar]; Galambos, Imre, “The Dingxian Wenzi: Translation and Prolegomena,” [Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1998])Google Scholar. However, there is a French translation and analytical commentary by Blanc, Charles Le, Le Wen zi: à la lumière de l'histoire et de l'archéologie (Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 2000)Google Scholar, which includes comparison with the Huainanzi as well as some discussion of the reception history of the text.

40. See, for example, Fengqian, Zhang , “Shilun zhujian Wenzi yu jinben Wenzi de guanxi” , Zhongguo shehui kexue 1998.2, 117–26Google Scholar; and Gangyan, Ge , “You chutu zhujian Wenzi kan jinben Wenzi de chengshu zuben” , Guji zhengli yanjiu xuekan 2004.1, 10–18 Google Scholar. The latter article in particular includes a brief but useful review of the scholarly literature to date.

41. Youwen, Zhao , Cao Zhi ji jiaozhu (Taipei: Mingwen, 1985), 437 Google Scholar

42. Wendian, Liu , Huainan honglie jijie (Taipei: Wenshizhe, 1985), 65 Google Scholar.

43. These articles have been collected and reprinted, with slight revisions, in Zhihua, He , “Wenzi” zhuzuo niandai xinzheng (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

44. There is solid linguistic evidence that portions of both the bamboo-strip and the Xu Lingfu texts date to the Warring States era (cf. introduction to Wenzi jiaozhu , ed. Yushang, Peng [Chengdu: Sichuan, 2006)], 2–4 Google Scholar). Weighed against He Zhihua's evidence, mentioned above, for a later date for other portions of the text, this pre-Qin linguistic evidence can at most point to a slowly-evolving text. For present purposes, it is merely helpful to note that evidence of partial Warring States provenance closely tracks with the partially-altered formulation from the Xunzi discussed below.

45. Alternatively, it is of course possible to assume with Peng Yushang, Wenzi jiaozhu, 67, and Yali, Zhao , Wenzi sixiang ji zhujian ‘Wenzi’ [Beijing: Beijing Yanshan, 2005], 88)Google Scholar that it is the Wenzi text that contains a character substitution. However, it seems that Xu's addition of a “water” radical is a less likely accident than his assumption of a dropped radical, especially as the reading of chong makes more sense for one who has not seen such a vessel.

46. Xinjiaoben Jin shu , ed. Jialuo, Yang (Taipei: Dingwen , 1976)Google Scholar (“Lie zhuan: Du Yu” ), 34.1028.

47. There were again several experiments at recreating the object in the Sui. Cf. Zheng, Wei et al., Sui shu (“Tianwen zhi [shang]” ) (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1973), 2 529 Google Scholar: “At the beginning of the Daye reign period, Geng Xun made an ancient tipping-vessel, [which was] filled through a spout, and presented it to Yangdi” Tang: cf. Xiu, Ouyang et al., Xin-Tang shu (“Taizong zhuzi liezhuan” ) (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1975), 12.3583 Google Scholar: “Gao tried himself to create a tipping-vessel” ), and Song: cf. Tuotuo, et al., Song shi (“Su Yijian liezhuan” ) (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1985), 26.9172 Google Scholar, “Another day, [Su] Yijian entered the palace, and was using water to try out a tipping-vessel” ; and juan 298 “[Yan Su] experimentally made a compass, two odometer-cars, and a tipping-vessel, and presented them [to the throne]” . Even as late as 1889, the Guangxu emperor had a tipping-vessel manufactured; that artifact is now in Beijing, at the Palace Museum. See Songling, Li , “Qufu guilai hua qiqi” , Beijing dang'an 2003.12, 45–46 Google Scholar.

48. Ling, Zhang , “Jiandi zhonger ping he ‘qiqi’ de guanxi” , Shanxi shifan xueyuan xuebao 1958.1, 45–48 Google Scholar.

49. Chongyue, Huang , “Shuijing qiyuan chutan” , Nongije kaogu 1982.2, 130–35Google Scholar.

50. See Cailiang, Liao , “Jiandiping de kexue” , in Zhonghua yuangu zuxian defaming (Guangzhou: Kexue puji, 1982), 47 Google Scholar, and Jinguang, Wang and Zhenyuan, Hong , Zhongguo gudai wulixue shihua (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin, 1981), 48 Google Scholar.

51. Xiao, Sun and Chongyue, Huang, “Banpo leixing jiandiping ceshi” Wenbo 1988.1, 18–24 Google Scholar.

52. Dajun, Wang , Jin, Tang , Qing, Zhang , Xiao, Sun , and Jiangang, Zhao , “Banpo jiandiping de yongtu ji qi lixue xingneng de taolun” , Wenbo 1989.6, 36–41 Google Scholar

53. Xiao, Sun , “Yiqi yu jiandiping kaolue” , Wenbo 1990.4, 41–48 Google Scholar.

54. Chongyue, Huang and Xiao, Sun, “Yuanshi qiguan nongye yu qiqikao” , Nongye kaogu 1994.1, 247–58Google Scholar.

55. Sun, “Yiqi,” Huang and Sun, “Yuanshi qiguan.”

56. Shuowen jiezi, 10.1084.

57. Watson, , The Complete Works of Chuang-tzu (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), 304 Google Scholar, for instance, transcribes the phrase as “leave them to their endless changes,” a phrase which follows many of the traditional commentators, and which, if correct, should be an additional argument in favor of the temporal context argued for here.

58. Zhuangzi jishi, 950.

59. Zhuangzi jishi, 108; Burton Watson, Chuang-tzu, 304.

60. Zhuangzi jishi, 70.

61. Zhuangzi jishi, 950. Lun (“principle”) may also be a pun on lun “wheel.”

62. Zhuangzi jishi, 577.

63. Zhuangzi jishi, 268.

64. It must be noted that A. C. Graham postulates an interesting alternative reading, translating the phrase in question as, “The ‘Potter's Wheel of Heaven’ is the whetstone of Heaven” (Chuang-Tzu: The Inner Chapters [London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981], 107)Google Scholar. The logic of Graham's translation is easy to follow, correctly taking jun as jun , and postulating ni as a similar object. Perhaps also in favor of such a reading is the fact that the smoothing function of both machines suits their association with the “Qiwu lun.” However, it is harder to discern Graham's linguistic basis for reading ni as a whetstone specifically, given that the most common early words for whetstone, di and li , do not seem plausible character-substitutions for ni.

65. Zhuangzi jishi, 79.

66. Watson, Chuang-tzu, 43.