Hostname: page-component-5d84bcc8dc-tw72b Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-09-14T05:18:19.772Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Slowing rates of regional exhumation in the western Himalaya: fission track evidence from the Indus Fan

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 October 2019

Peng Zhou ,
Andrew Carter ,
Yuting Li  and
Peter D. Clift Open the ORCID record for Peter D. Clift [Opens in a new window]
Peng Zhou
Affiliation:
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
Andrew Carter
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK
Yuting Li
Affiliation:
Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
Peter D. Clift*
Affiliation:
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA Research Center for Earth System Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, 650091, China
*
Author for correspondence: Peter D. Clift, Email: pclift@lsu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We use apatite fission track ages from sediments recovered by the International Ocean Discovery Program in the Laxmi Basin, Arabian Sea, to constrain exhumation rates in the western Himalaya and Karakoram since 15.5 Ma. With the exception of a Triassic population in the youngest 0.93 Ma samples supplied from western Peninsular India, apatite fission track ages are overwhelmingly Cenozoic, largely <25 Ma, consistent with both a Himalaya–Karakoram source and rapid erosion. Comparison of the minimum cooling age of each sample with depositional age (lag time) indicates an acceleration in exhumation between 7.8 and 7.0 Ma, with lag times shortening from ∼6.0 Myr at 8.5–7.8 Ma to being within error of zero between 7.0 and 5.7 Ma. Sediment supply at 7.0–5.7 Ma was largely from the Karakoram, and to a lesser extent the Himalaya, based on U–Pb zircon ages from the same samples. This time coincides with a period of drying in the Himalayan foreland caused by weaker summer monsoons and Westerly winds. It also correlates with a shift of erosion away from the Karakoram, Kohistan and the Tethyan Himalaya towards more erosion of the Lesser and Greater Himalaya and Nanga Parbat, as shown by zircon U–Pb provenance data, and especially after 5.7 Ma based on Nd isotope data. Samples younger than 5.7 Ma have lag times of ∼4.5 Myr, similar to Holocene Indus delta sediments.

Keywords

International Ocean Discovery Programfission trackerosionHimalayaIndus Fanmonsoon

Information

Type
Original Article
Information
Geological Magazine , Volume 157 , Special Issue 6: Climate-tectonic interactions in the eastern Arabian Sea , June 2020 , pp. 848 - 863
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Alizai, A, Carter, A, Clift, PD, VanLaningham, S, Williams, JC and Kumar, R (2011) Sediment provenance, reworking and transport processes in the Indus River by U–Pb dating of detrital zircon grains. Global and Planetary Change 76, 33–55. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.11.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baral, U, Lin, D and Chamlagain, D (2016) Detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology of the Siwalik Group of the Nepal Himalaya: implications for provenance analysis. International Journal of Earth Sciences 105, 921–39, doi: 10.1007/s00531-015-1198-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrensmeyer, AK, Quade, J, Cerling, TE, Kappelman, J, Khan, IA, Copeland, P, Roe, L, Hicks, J, Stubblefield, P, Willis, BJ and Latorre, C (2007) The structure and rate of late Miocene expansion of C4 plants: Evidence from lateral variation in stable isotopes in paleosols of the Siwalik Group, northern Pakistan. Geological Society of America Bulletin 119, 1486–505. doi: 10.1130/B26064.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernet, M, van der Beek, P, Pik, R, Huyghe, P, Mugnier, J-L, Labrin, E and Szulc, AG (2006) Miocene to Recent exhumation of the central Himalaya determined from combined detrital zircon fission-track and U/Pb analysis of Siwalik sediments, western Nepal. Basin Research 18, 393–412. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betzler, C, Eberli, GP, Kroon, D, Wright, JD, Swart, PK, Nath, BN, Alvarez-Zarikian, CA, Alonso-García, M, Bialik, OM, Blättler, CL, Guo, JA, Haffen, S, Horozai, S, Inoue, M, Jovane, L, Lanci, L, Laya, JC, Mee, ALH, Lüdmann, T, Nakakuni, M, Niino, K, Petruny, LM, Pratiwi, SD, Reijmer, JJG, Reolid, J, Slagle, AL, Sloss, CR, Su, X, Yao, Z and Young, JR (2016) The abrupt onset of the modern South Asian monsoon winds. Scientific Reports 6, 29838. doi: 10.1038/srep29838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhattacharya, GCB, Chaubey, AK, Murty, GPS, Srinivas, S, Sarma, KV, Subrahmanyam, V and Krishna, KS (1994) Evidence for seafloor spreading in the Laxmi Basin, northeastern Indian Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 125, 211–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bollinger, L, Avouac, JP, Beyssac, O, Catlos, EJ, Harrison, TM, Grove, M, Goffe, B and Sapkota, S (2004) Thermal structure and exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya in central Nepal. Tectonics 23, 19. doi: 10.1029/2003TC001564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bookhagen, B and Burbank, DW (2006) Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya. Geophysical Research Letters 33 L08405. doi: 10.1029/2006GL026037.Google Scholar
Bouquillon, A, France-Lanord, C, Michard, A and Tiercelin, J (1990) Sedimentology and isotopic chemistry of the Bengal Fan sediments: the denudation of the Himalaya. In Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, vol. 116 (eds Cochran, JR, Stow, DAV and Auroux, C), pp. 43–58. College Station, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvès, G, Huuse, M, Clift, PD and Brusset, S (2015) Giant fossil mass wasting off the coast of West India: the Nataraja submarine slide. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 432, 265–72. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2015.10.022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, A (1999) Present status and future avenues of source region discrimination and characterization using fission track analysis. Sedimentary Geology 124, 31–45. doi: 10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00119-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, A (2007) Heavy minerals and detrital fission-track thermochronology. Developments in Sedimentology 58, 851–68. doi: 10.1016/S0070-4571(07)58033-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cerveny, PF, Johnson, NM, Tahirkheli, RAK and Bonis, NR (1989) Tectonic and geomorphic implications of Siwalik Group heavy minerals, Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. In Tectonics of the Western Himalayas (eds Malinconico, LL and Lillie, RJ), pp. 129–36. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Special Paper no. 232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirouze, F, Huyghe, P, Chauvel, C, van der Beek, P, Bernet, M and Mugnier, J-L (2015) Stable drainage pattern and variable exhumation in the Western Himalaya since the Middle Miocene. Journal of Geology 123, 1–20. doi: 10.1086/679305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirouze, F, Huyghe, P, van der Beek, P, Chauvel, C, Chakraborty, T, Dupont-Nivet, G and Bernet, M (2013) Tectonics, exhumation, and drainage evolution of the eastern Himalaya since 13 Ma from detrital geochemistry and thermochronology, Kameng River Section, Arunachal Pradesh. Geological Society of America Bulletin 125, 523–38.10.1130/B30697.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, MK (2012) Continental collision slowing due to viscous mantle lithosphere rather than topography. Nature 483, 74–7. doi: 10.1038/nature10848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clift, PD (2006) Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 241, 571–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD (2017) Cenozoic sedimentary records of climate-tectonic coupling in the Western Himalaya. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science 4, 1–22. doi: 10.1186/s40645-017-0151-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD and Blusztajn, JS (2005) Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five million years ago. Nature 438, 1001–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clift, PD, Campbell, IH, Pringle, MS, Carter, A, Zhang, X, Hodges, KV, Khan, AA and Allen, CM (2004) Thermochronology of the modern Indus River bedload; new insight into the control on the marine stratigraphic record. Tectonics 23, 1–17. doi: 10.1029/2003TC001559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Carter, A, Krol, M and Kirby, E (2002a) Constraints on India; Eurasia collision in the Arabian Sea region taken from the Indus Group, Ladakh Himalaya, India. In The Tectonic and Climatic Evolution of the Arabian Sea Region (eds Clift, PD, Kroon, D, Gaedicke, C and Craig, J), pp. 97–116. Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 195.Google Scholar
Clift, PD and Giosan, L (2014) Sediment fluxes and buffering in the post-glacial Indus Basin. Basin Research 26, 369–86. doi: 10.1111/bre.12038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Giosan, L, Carter, A, Garzanti, E, Galy, V, Tabrez, AR, Pringle, M, Campbell, IH, France-Lanord, C, Blusztajn, J, Allen, C, Alizai, A, Lückge, A, Danish, M and Rabbani, MM (2010) Monsoon control over erosion patterns in the Western Himalaya: possible feed-backs into the tectonic evolution. In Monsoon Evolution and Tectonic-Climate Linkage in Asia (eds Clift, PD, Tada, R and Zheng, H), pp. 181–213. Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 342.Google Scholar
Clift, PD, Hodges, K, Heslop, D, Hannigan, R, Hoang, LV and Calves, G (2008) Greater Himalayan exhumation triggered by Early Miocene monsoon intensification. Nature Geoscience 1, 875–80. doi: 10.1038/ngeo351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Kulhanek, DK, Zhou, P, Bowen, MG, Vincent, SM, Lyle, M and Hahn, A (2019a) Chemical weathering and erosion responses to changing monsoon climate in the late Miocene of Southwest Asia. Geological Magazine, published online 13 June 2019. doi: 10.1017/S0016756819000608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Lee, JI, Hildebrand, P, Shimizu, N, Layne, GD, Blusztajn, J, Blum, JD, Garzanti, E and Khan, AA (2002b) Nd and Pb isotope variability in the Indus River system; implications for sediment provenance and crustal heterogeneity in the western Himalaya. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 200, 91–106. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00620-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Shimizu, N, Layne, G, Gaedicke, C, Schlüter, HU, Clark, MK and Amjad, S (2001) Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the western Himalaya and Karakoram. Geological Society of America Bulletin 113, 1039–51.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clift, PD, Zhou, P, Stockli, DF and Blusztajn, J (2019b) Regional Pliocene exhumation of the Lesser Himalaya in the Indus drainage. Solid Earth 10, 647–61. doi: 10.5194/se-10-647-2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corrigan, JD and Crowley, JL (1990) Fission track analysis of detrital apatites from Sites 717 and 718, leg 116, central Indian Ocean. In Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, vol. 116 (eds Cochran, JR and Stow, DAV), pp. 75–92. College Station, Texas.10.2973/odp.proc.sr.116.118.1990CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curry, WB, Ostermann, DR, Guptha, MVS and Itekkot, V (1992) Foraminiferal production and monsoonal upwelling in the Arabian Sea; evidence from sediment traps. In Upwelling Systems; Evolution Since the Early Miocene (eds Summerhayes, CP, Prell, WL and Emeis, KC), pp. 93–106. Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 64.Google Scholar
Dailey, SK, Clift, PD, Kulhanek, DK, Blusztajn, J, Routledge, CM, Calvès, G, O’Sullivan, P, Jonell, TN, Pandey, DK, Andò, S, Coletti, G, Zhou, P, Li, Y, Neubeck, NE, Bendle, JAP, Bratenkov, S, Griffith, EM, Gurumurthy, GP, Hahn, A, Iwai, M, Khim, B-K, Kumar, A, Kumar, AG, Liddy, HM, Lu, H, Lyle, MW, Mishra, R, Radhakrishna, T, Saraswat, R, Saxena, R, Scardia, G, Sharma, GK, Singh, AD, Steinke, S, Suzuki, K, Tauxe, L, Tiwari, M, Xu, Z and Yu, Z (2019) Large-scale mass wasting on the Miocene continental margin of Western India. Geological Society of America Bulletin, published online 9 May 2019. doi: 10.1130/B35158.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeCelles, PG, Kapp, P, Gehrels, GE and Ding, L (2014) Paleocene-Eocene foreland basin evolution in the Himalaya of southern Tibet and Nepal: implications for the age of initial India-Asia collision. Tectonics 33, 824–49. doi: 10.1002/ 2014TC003522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dettman, DL, Kohn, MJ, Quade, J, Ryerson, FJ, Ojha, TP and Hamidullah, S (2001) Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y. Geology 29, 31–4.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietze, M, Kreutzer, S, Burow, C, Fuchs, MC, Fischer, M and Schmidt, C (2016) The abanico plot: visualising chronometric data with individual standard errors. Quaternary Geochronology 31, 12–18. doi: 10.1016/j.quageo.2015.09.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, DA, Gleadow, AJW and Mortimer, G (1994) Rapid Pliocene exhumation in the Karakoram (Pakistan), revealed by fission-track thermochronology of the K2 gneiss. Geology 22, 19–22.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galbraith, RF (1990) The radial plot: graphical assessment of spread in ages. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurement 17, 207–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galbraith, RF (2005) Statistics for Fission Track Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galbraith, RF and Green, PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurement 17, 197–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, K, Hawkesworth, CJ and Mantovani, MSM (1995) Denudation, fission track analysis and the long-term evolution of passive margin topography: application to the S.E. Brazilian margin. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 8, 65–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garzanti, E, Vezzoli, G, Ando, S, France-Lanord, C, Singh, SK and Foster, G (2004) Sand petrology and focused erosion in collision orogens: the Brahmaputra case. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 220, 157–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garzanti, E, Vezzoli, G, Ando, S, Paparella, P and Clift, PD (2005) Petrology of Indus River sands; a key to interpret erosion history of the western Himalayan syntaxis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 229, 287–302. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.11.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, SK and Kumar, R (2000) Petrography of Neogene Siwalik sandstone of the Himalayan foreland basin, Garhwal Himalaya: Implications for source area tectonics and climate. Journal of the Geological Society of India 55, 1–15.Google Scholar
Giosan, L, Ponton, C, Usman, M, Blusztajn, J, Fuller, DQ, Galy, V, Haghipour, N, Johnson, JE, McIntyre, C, Wacker, L and Eglinton, TI (2017) Short communication: massive erosion in monsoonal central India linked to late Holocene land cover degradation. Earth Surface Dynamics 5, 781–9. doi:10.5194/esurf-5-781-2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, PF (1989) Thermal and tectonic history of the East Midlands shelf (onshore UK) and surrounding regions assessed by apatite fission track analysis. Journal of the Geological Society, London 146, 755–73.10.1144/gsjgs.146.5.0755CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, PF, Duddy, IR, Laslett, GM, Hegarty, KA, Gleadow, AJW and Lovering, JF (1989) Thermal annealing of fission tracks in apatite; 4, Quantitative modelling techniques and extension to geological timescales. Chemical Geology: Isotope Geoscience section 79, 155–82.Google Scholar
Gunnell, Y, Gallagher, K, Carter, A, Widdowson, M and Hurford, AJ (2003) Denudation history of the continental margin of western peninsular India since early Mesozoic—reconciling apatite fission track data with geomorphology. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 215, 187–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, AK, Yuvaraja, A, Prakasam, M, Clemens, SC and Velu, A (2015) Evolution of the South Asian monsoon wind system since the late Middle Miocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 438, 160–7. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.08.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haack, U (1977) The closing temperature for fission track retention in minerals. American Journal of Science 277, 459–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, Y, Clemens, SC, Liu, W, Wang, Y and Prell, WL (2007) Large-scale hydrological change drove the late Miocene C4 plant expansion in the Himalayan foreland and Arabian Peninsula. Geology 35, 531–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurford, A (1990) Standardization of fission track dating calibration: recommendation by the Fission Track Working Group of the IUGS Subcommission on Geochronology. Chemical Geology 80, 177–8.Google Scholar
Huyghe, P, Galy, A, Mugnier, J-L and France-Lanord, C (2001) Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: geochemical and sedimentological evidence. Geology 29, 1007–10.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jain, AK, Kumar, D, Singh, S, Kumar, A and Lal, N (2000) Timing, quantification and tectonic modelling of Pliocene–Quaternary movements in the NW Himalaya; evidence from fission track dating. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 179, 437–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalaswad, S, Roden, MK, Miller, DS and Morisawa, M (1993) Evolution of the continental margin of western India: new evidence from apatite fission-track dating. Journal of Geology 101, 667–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirstein, LA, Foeken, JPT, van der Beek, P, Stuart, FM and Phillips, RJ (2009) Cenozoic unroofing history of the Ladakh Batholith, western Himalaya constrained by thermochronology and numerical modeling. Journal of the Geological Society, London 166, 667–78. doi: 10.1144/0016-7649.2008-107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirstein, LA, Sinclair, HD, Stuart, FM and Dobson, K (2006) Rapid early Miocene exhumation of the Ladakh batholith, western Himalaya. Geology 34, 1049–52. doi: 10.1130/G22857ACrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krol, MA, Zeitler, PK and Copeland, P (1996) Episodic unroofing of the Kohistan Batholith, Pakistan: implications from K-feldspar thermochronology. Journal of Geophysical Research–Solid Earth 101, 28149–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroon, D, Steens, T and Troelstra, SR (1991) Onset of monsoonal related upwelling in the western Arabian Sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers. In Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, vol. 117 (eds Prell, W and Niitsuma, N), pp. 257–63. College Station, Texas.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, A, Lal, N, Jain, AK and Sorkhabi, RB (1995) Late Cenozoic–Quaternary thermo-tectonic history of Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) in Kishtwar-Padar-Zanskar region, NW Himalaya; evidence from fission track ages. Journal of the Geological Society of India 45, 375–91.Google Scholar
Laslett, GM, Green, PF, Duddy, IR and Gleadow, AJW (1987) Thermal annealing of fission track grains in apatite. Chemical Geology 65, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavé, J and Avouac, JP (2001) Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalaya of central Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 26561–91. doi: 10.1029/2001JB000359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, JI, Clift, PD, Layne, G, Blum, J and Khan, AA (2003) Sediment flux in the modern Indus River traced by the trace element composition of detrital amphibole grains. Sedimentary Geology 160, 243–57. doi: 10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00378-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y, Clift, PD and O’Sullivan, P (2019) Millennial and centennial variations in zircon U–Pb and apatite fission track ages in the Quaternary Indus submarine canyon. Basin Research 31, 155–70. doi: 10.1111/bre.12313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, G, Tian, Y, Kohn, BP, Sandiford, M, Xu, Z and Cai, Z (2015) Cenozoic low temperature cooling history of the Northern Tethyan Himalaya in Zedang, SE Tibet and its implications. Tectonophysics 643, 80–93. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2014.12.014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meigs, AJ, Burbank, DW and Beck, RA (1995) Middle-late Miocene (>10 Ma) formation of the Main Boundary thrust in the western Himalaya. Geology 23, 423–6.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Métivier, F, Gaudemer, Y, Tapponnier, P and Klein, M (1999) Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic. Geophysical Journal International 137, 280–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, PR and Roest, WR (1993) Earliest seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies in the north Arabian Sea and the ocean-continent transition. Geophysical Journal International 115, 1025–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mishra, R, Pandey, DK, Ramesh, P and Clift, PD (2016) Identification of new deep sea sinuous channels in the eastern Arabian Sea. SpringerPlus 5, 844. doi: 10.1186/s40064-016-2497-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mugnier, J-L, Huyghe, P, Chalaron, E and Mascle, G (1994) Recent movements along the Main Boundary Thrust of the Himalayas: normal faulting in an over-critical thrust wedge? Tectonophysics 238, 199–215.10.1016/0040-1951(94)90056-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Najman, Y (2006) The detrital record of orogenesis: a review of approaches and techniques used in the Himalayan sedimentary basins. Earth-Science Reviews 74, 1–72.Google Scholar
Najman, Y, Appel, E, Boudagher-Fadel, M, Bown, P, Carter, A, Garzanti, E, Godin, L, Han, J, Liebke, U, Oliver, G, Parrish, R and Vezzoli, G (2010) Timing of India-Asia collision: Geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, 1–18. doi: 10.1029/2010JB007673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Najman, Y, Bickle, M, Garzanti, E, Pringle, M, Barfod, D, Brozovic, N, Burbank, D and Ando, S (2009) Reconstructing the exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya, NW India, from a multitechnique provenance study of the foreland basin Siwalik Group. Tectonics 28, 1–15. doi: 10.1029/2009TC002506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandey, DK, Clift, PD, Kulhanek, DK, Andò, S, Bendle, JAP, Bratenkov, S, Griffith, EM, Gurumurthy, GP, Hahn, A, Iwai, M, Khim, B-K, Kumar, A, Kumar, AG, Liddy, HM, Lu, H, Lyle, MW, Mishra, R, Radhakrishna, T, Routledge, CM, Saraswat, R, Saxena, R, Scardia, G, Sharma, GK, Singh, AD, Steinke, S, Suzuki, K, Tauxe, L, Tiwari, M, Xu, Z and Yu, Z (2016a) Site U1456. In Arabian Sea Monsoon. Proceedings of the International Ocean Discovery Program, vol. 355 (eds Pandey, DK, Clift, PD and Kulhanek, DK), pp. 1–61. College Station, Texas. doi: 10.14379/iodp.proc.355.103.2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandey, DK, Clift, PD, Kulhanek, DK, Andò, S, Bendle, JAP, Bratenkov, S, Griffith, EM, Gurumurthy, GP, Hahn, A, Iwai, M, Khim, B-K, Kumar, A, Kumar, AG, Liddy, HM, Lu, H, Lyle, MW, Mishra, R, Radhakrishna, T, Routledge, CM, Saraswat, R, Saxena, R, Scardia, G, Sharma, GK, Singh, AD, Steinke, S, Suzuki, K, Tauxe, L, Tiwari, M, Xu, Z and Yu, Z (2016b) Expedition 355 summary. In Arabian Sea Monsoon. Proceedings of the International Ocean Discovery Program, vol. 355 (eds Pandey, DK, Clift, PD and Kulhanek, DK), pp. 1–32. College Station, Texas. doi: 10.14379/iodp.proc.355.101.2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandey, OP, Agrawal, PK and Negi, JG (1995) Lithospheric structure beneath Laxmi Ridge and late Cretaceous geodynamic events. Geo-Marine Letters 15, 85–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poupeau, G, Pecher, A, Benharbit, M and Noyan, OF (1991) Ages traces de fission sur apatites et taux de denudation plio-quaternaires au Karakorum central. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences, Serie II Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes 313, 917–22.Google Scholar
Prell, WL, Murray, DW, Clemens, SC and Anderson, DM (1992) Evolution and variability of the Indian Ocean Summer Monsoon: evidence from the western Arabian Sea drilling program. In Synthesis of Results from Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean (eds Duncan, RA, Rea, DK, Kidd, RB, von Rad, U and Weissel, JK), pp. 447–69. American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph vol. 70. Washington, DC, USA.Google Scholar
Quade, J, Cerling, TE and Bowman, JR (1989) Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan. Nature 342, 163–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadler, PM and Jerolmack, DJ (2014) Scaling laws for aggradation, denudation and progradation rates: the case for time-scale invariance at sediment sources and sinks. In Strata and Time: Probing the Gaps in Our Understanding (eds Smith, DG, Bailey, RJ, Burgess, PM and Fraser, AJ). Geological Society of London, Special Publication no. 404.Google Scholar
Searle, MP (1996) Cooling history, erosion, exhumation and kinematics of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet orogenic belt. In The Tectonic Evolution of Asia (eds Yin, A and Harrison, TM), pp. 110–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Singh, S, Parkash, B, Awasthi, AK and Kumar, S (2011) Late Miocene record of palaeovegetation from Siwalik palaeosols of the Ramnagar sub-basin, India. Current Science 100, 213–22.Google Scholar
Stewart, RJ, Hallet, B, Zeitler, PK, Malloy, MA, Allen, CM and Trippett, D (2008) Brahmaputra sediment flux dominated by highly localized rapid erosion from the easternmost Himalaya. Geology 36, 711–14. doi: 10.1130/G24890A1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szulc, AG, Najman, Y, Sinclair, HD, Pringle, M, Bickle, M, Chapman, H, Garzanti, E, Ando, S, Huyghe, P, Mugnier, J-L, Ojha, T and DeCelles, PG (2006) Tectonic evolution of the Himalaya constrained by detrital 40Ar/39Ar, Sm/Nd and petrographic data from the Siwalik foreland basin succession, SW Nepal. Basin Research 18, 375–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thiede, RC, Bookhagen, B, Arrowsmith, JR, Sobel, ER and Strecker, MR (2004) Climatic control on rapid exhumation along the Southern Himalayan Front. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222, 791–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Beek, P, Robert, X, Mugnier, J-L, Bernet, M, Huyghe, P and Labrin, E (2006) Late Miocene–Recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal. Basin Research 18, 413–34. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Beek, P, Van Melle, J, Guillot, S, Pêcher, A, Reiners, PW, Nicolescu, S and Latif, M (2009) Eocene Tibetan plateau remnants preserved in the northwest Himalaya. Nature Geoscience 2, 364–8. doi: 10.1038/NGEO503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vannay, J-C, Grasemann, B, Rahn, M, Frank, W, Carter, A, Baudraz, V and Cosca, M (2004) Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges in the NW Himalaya; evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to fluvial erosion. Tectonics 23. doi: 10.1029/2002TC001429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vermeesch, P (2012) On the visualisation of detrital age distributions. Chemical Geology 312–313, 190–4. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.04.021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vögeli, N, Najman, Y, Beek, PVD, Huyghe, P, Wynn, PM, Govin, G, Veen, IVD and Sachse, D (2017) Lateral variations in vegetation in the Himalaya since the Miocene and implications for climate evolution. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 471, 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2017.04.037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallis, D, Carter, A, Phillips, RJ, Parsons, AJ and Searle, MP (2016) Spatial variation in exhumation rates across Ladakh and the Karakoram: new apatite fission track data from the Eastern Karakoram, NW India. Tectonics 35, 704–21. doi: 10.1002/2015TC003943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warner, LF (1993) Variable Denudation of the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif: A Fission Track Study of the Tato Valley, Pakistan. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University. 34 pp.Google Scholar
Wasson, RJ (2003) A sediment budget for the Ganga–Brahmaputra catchment. Current Science 84, 1041–7.Google Scholar
Webb, AAG (2013) Preliminary palinspastic reconstruction of Cenozoic deformation across the Himachal Himalaya (northwestern India). Geosphere 9, 572–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, NM, Pringle, M, Garzanti, E, Bickle, M, Najman, Y, Chapman, H and Friend, P (2002) Constraints on the exhumation and erosion of the High Himalayan Slab, NW India, from foreland basin deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 195, 29–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willenbring, JK and von Blanckenburg, F (2010) Long-term stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling. Nature 465, 211–14. doi: 10.1038/nature09044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeilinger, G, Burg, JP, Schaltegger, U and Seward, D (2001) New U/Pb and fission track ages and their implication for the tectonic history of the lower Kohistan Arc Complex, northern Pakistan. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 19, 79–81.Google Scholar
Zeitler, PK (1985) Cooling history of the NW Himalaya, Pakistan. Tectonics 4, 127–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeitler, PK, Chamberlain, CP and Smith, HA (1993) Synchronous anatexis, metamorphism, and rapid denudation at Nanga-Parbat (Pakistan Himalaya). Geology 21, 347–50.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeitler, PK, Sutter, JF, Williams, IS, Zartman, RE and Tahirkheli, RAK (1989) Geochronology and temperature history of the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massif, Pakistan. In Tectonics of the Western Himalayas (eds Malinconico, LL and Lillie, RJ), pp. 1–22. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America, Special Paper vol. 232.Google Scholar
Zhang, P, Molnar, P and Downs, WR (2001) Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2–4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates. Nature 410, 891–7.Google Scholar
Zhuang, G, Najman, Y, Tian, Y, Carter, A, Gemignani, L, Wijbrans, J, Jan, MQ and Khan, MA (2018) Insights into the evolution of the Hindu Kush-Kohistan-Karakoram from modern river sand detrital geo- and thermochronological studies, London. Journal of the Geological Society 175, 934–48. doi: 10.1144/jgs2018-007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Zhou et al. supplementary material

Zhou et al. supplementary material

Download Zhou et al. supplementary material(File)
File 170.8 KB