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R. Woodward, David
2011.
The Encyclopedia of War.
Article contents
VIII. Sir Robert Borden, Lloyd George and British Military Policy, 1917–1918
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 February 2009
Extract
‘Let the past bury its dead, but for God's sake let us get down to earnest endeavour and hold this line until … the end.’ No other words can more adequately express, after four years of war, the sheer agony of the Canadian Prime Minister, Sir Robert L. Borden. These words also suggest both his attitude to the war in general and his intense frustration with die supreme direction. Like Lloyd George, Borden was an exponent of total war and of victory. His proclamation that Canada was ‘fighting not for a truce but victory’, was strikingly similar to Lloyd George's own declaration that ‘the fight must be to a finish—to a knockout’. The objective, proclaimed at die conclusion of the Somme battles, seemed no less remote in the middle of 1918. Over the last two, and most critical, years of the First World War there was constant contention within Britain over how the objective was to be secured. One aspect of the contention was the direct involvement of Dominion leaders, especially Sir Robert Borden.
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References
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35 I.W.C. 13, 1 May 1917.
36 Borden, , Memoirs, II, 695. Borden was referring to a second committee under Lord Milner: Cab. 21/71, 78, ‘Imperial War Cabinet. Committee on Terms of Peace (Economic and non-Territorial Desiderata), Report’, 24 Apr. 1917.Google Scholar
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42 I.W.C. 1, 20 Mar. 1917. Similar views were also expressed by A. J. Balfour (Foreign Secretary), Austen Chamberlain and Lord Curzon in I.W.C. 2, 22 Mar. 1917.
43 I.W.C. I, 20 Mar.; I.W.C. 10, 13 Mar. 1917.
44 Cab. 23/2, W.C. 126(3), 25 Apr. 1917.
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49 Cab. 23/3, W.C. 159(13); Cab. 23/16, W.C. 159A, 8 June 1917. Amery claims credit for originating the idea: Amery Diary, 4 June 1917.
50 Amery Diary, 20 Apr. 1917, ff.; Cab. 23/2, W.C. 124(6, 7), 23 Apr. 1917; Lloyd George MSS, F/32/4/84, Long to Lloyd George, 8 June; Col. Sec. to Gov.-Gen. South Africa, 8 June 1917; Roskill, , Hartley, p. 398.Google Scholar
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55 I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
56 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
57 CO. 616/70, Gov.-Gen. Australia to Col. Sec, 10 Dec. 1917; Hankey to Long, 1 Jan. 1917 (sic, i.e. 1918).
58 Amery MSS, E.70, Lloyd George MSS, F/2/1/27, ‘The Future of the Imperial Cabinet System’, 29 June 1918.
59 I.W.C. 27, 25 July 1918.
60 Borden MSS, R.L.B. 1924, O.C.A. 117, Northcliffe to Borden, 1 Nov.; Borden to Sir G. Perley (Can. High Commissioner in London), 1 Nov.; C.O. 532/93, Gov.-Gen. to Col. Sec., 7 Nov. 1917.
61 Cab. 23/4, W.C. 280(10), 22 Nov.; C.O. 532/101, F.O. 800/207, Long to Balfour, 21 Nov. 1917.
62 A. Bonar Law MSS, 82/6/11, Milner to Law, 26 Nov.; C.O. 532/107, Borden MSS, R.L.B. 1924, O.C.A. 117, Col. Sec. to Gov.-Gen., 27 Nov. 1917.
63 CO. 532/93, Borden MSS, R.L.B. 1924, O.C.A. 117, Gov.-Gen. to Col. Sec, 21, 23 Dec. 1917. The original suggestion that Kemp should be invited for discussions, using the question of the activation of the 5th Canadian Division ‘as a pretext’, came from Amery: Amery MSS, E.59, Amery to Hankey, 15 Nov.; Cab. 23/4, W.C. 275(13), 16 Nov. 1917.
64 Borden MSS, O'C. 419(i), A. E. Kemp MSS, 129/B-3, Borden to Kemp, 3 Jan. 1918.
65 Cab. 23/5, W.C. 312, W.C. 313, 3 Jan.; Borden MSS, O'C. 419 (i), Kemp MSS, 129/B-3, Kemp to Borden, 3 Jan. 1918.
66 C.O. 532/113, Col. Sec. to Govs.-Gen., 3 Jan.; C.O. 532/109, Gov.-Gen. Canada to Col. Sec., 5 Jan. 1918. For Lloyd George's statement, see Britain, Great, War Cabinet Report for the Year 1917 [Cd. 9005].Google Scholar
67 Borden MSS, O'C 419(i), Kemp MSS, 129/B-3, Kemp to Borden, 3 Jan. 1918.
68 C.O. 532/110, Borden MSS, R.L.B. 2432, Col. Sec. to Gov.-Gen., 6 Feb.; Gov.-Gen. to Col. Sec., 21 Feb.; Borden MSS. O'C. 485(c), Borden to Sir Thomas White, 19 Feb. 1918.
69 Amery MSS, E.61, Amery to Hankey, 5 Feb.; Cab. 23/5, W.C 340(10), 7 Feb.; Cab. 23/13, W.C. 358 ‘A’, 4 Mar. 1918. For the war plan, see Cab. 25, ‘Minutes of the Supreme War Council, Joint Note no. 12’, 30 Jan. 1918.
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72 Cab. 23/5, W.C. 378(5), 30 Mar. 1918.
73 Borden MSS, O'C. 482, Gov.-Gen. to Col. Sec., 12 Apr.; Lloyd George MSS, F/5/2/10, Perley to Lloyd George, 13 Apr.; C.O. 42/1010, Kemp. MSS, i64/W-8, Col. Sec. to Gov.-Gen., 16 Apr. 1918; Borden, , Memoirs, II, 798–9.Google Scholar
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76 Amery MSS, E.61, Amery to Lloyd George, 8 June 1918.
77 Amery MSS, E.72, Milner MSS, Box A-D/13, Memorandum, ‘The Eastern Theatre’, 25 Mar. 1918.
78 Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-6, 30 May; ‘X’-8, 5 June 1918. The ‘X’ minutes were Hankey's reports on the proceedings of specially secret meetings of the inner Cabinet. There is a complete set of these minutes in Amery MSS, E.68/3.
79 Amery MSS, E.61, Amery to Lloyd George, 8 June; Milner MSS, Letters, Lloyd George MSS, F/38/3/37, Milner to Lloyd George, 9 June 1918.
80 Amery MSS, E.61, Amery to Sir J. P. Fitzgerald, 6 Aug.; Chamberlain MSS, Letters, Chamberlain to Hilda Chamberlain, 8 June 1918. Aside from Borden and his special assistant, Loring C. Christie, the group consisted of N. W. Rowell (President of Privy Council), A. Meighen (Attorney-General), J. A. Calder (Immigration), S. Mewburn (Militia) and C. C. Ballantyne (Naval Service).
81 See Cab. 24/55, GT-4908 to GT-4915, 21 June 1918.
82 Borden MSS, ‘Memoir Notes, 1918’, Borden to F. Carvell, 19 June 1918; G. M. Wrong MSS, L. Christie to Wrong, 30 Dec. 1919. Christie's emphasis.
83 N. W. Rowell MSS, 17/70, Borden MSS, O'C. 485, Rowell to Amery, 23 July 1918; copy in Lloyd George MSS, F/2/1/27.
84 Amery MSS, E-72, Memorandum, ‘War Aims and Military Policy’, 15 June 1918; ibid. E.61, Amery to Borden, and others, 15 June 1918.
85 I.W.C. 15, 11 June 1918. Amery had persuaded Hankey to number die 1918 meetings in continuation of the 1917 meetings: Amery Diary, 11 June 1918.
86 Arthur Meighen MSS, Series 1, 6/37, Meighen to ‘Jack’ Meighen, 12 June 1918.
87 Amery Diary, 11 June 1918. Hankey had a similar impression: Roskill, , Hankey, p. 562.Google Scholar
88 Borden MSS, O'C. 485, Rowell to Borden, 10 June, with enclosures; Borden to Rowell, 11 June 1918.
89 Borden, , Memoirs, II, 812–15;Google Scholar Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-11, 12 June; ‘X’-13, 14 June 1918; Roskill, , Hankey, pp. 561, 563;Google ScholarHankey, , Supreme Command, II, 816.Google Scholar
90 Soward, F. H., ‘Sir Robert Borden and Canada's External Policy, 1911–1920’, Canadian Historical Association, Annual Report (1941), p. 74.Google Scholar
91 I.W.C. 16, 13 June 1918; Borden, , Memoirs, II, 808–12. Emphasis supplied.Google Scholar
92 I.W.C. 17, 14 June 1918.
93 Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-13, 14 June 1918; Roskill, , Hankey, p. 562.Google Scholar
94 Borden MSS, ‘Memoir Notes, 1918’, Borden to Gov.-Gen., 22 June 1918; Borden, , Memoirs, II, 820.Google Scholar
95 Amery Diary, 13 June 1918.
96 Cab. 1/27/1, Lloyd George MSS, F/45/9/19, Borden MSS, O'C. 628, ‘Note by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the Prime Ministers of the Dominions’, 13 June 1918, end. ‘Cabinet Committee on War Policy, 10th Meeting’, 21 June 1917.
97 Roskill, , Hartley, p. 563; I.W.C. 17, 14 June; I.W.C. 19, 20 June 1917.Google Scholar
98 Amery MSS, E.61, Amery to Lloyd George, 8 June 1918.
99 Roskill, , Hankey, p. 566. Hankey's ‘Notes of the Meetings of the Committee of Prime Ministers’ are in Cab. 23/44. Hereinafter reference will be made only to the relevant meeting, viz: I.W.C. 19A, Note by the Secretary, 22 June 1918.Google Scholar
100 I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
101 Cab. 23/44, Borden MSS, O'C. 628, ‘Preliminary Draft Report of the Committee of Prime Ministers’, 15 Aug. 1918. A corrected version is in Cab. 27/8 as WP-72, ‘Military Policy of the Empire, Draft Report of the Committee of Prime Ministers appointed by the Imperial War Cabinet’, 20 Aug. 1918. Hereinafter, reference will be made only to the relevant paragraphs and conclusions of the Preliminary Draft Report, viz: Draft Report, Conclusion 4.
102 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
103 Draft Report, Conclusions 3, 4, 5; para. 10.
104 I.W.C. 19A, 21 June; I.W.C. 19B, 24 June 1918; Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-21, 16 July 1918; Roskill, , Hankey, pp. 567, 576. Amery also thought that Lloyd George was ‘most petulant and really rather offensive’ to Milner: Amery Diary, 16 July 1918.Google Scholar
105 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
106 Draft Report, Conclusions 1, 2; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
107 Cab. 27/8, Borden MSS, O'C. 628, WP-70, ‘British Military Policy, 1918–1919 …’, 25 July 1918.
108 Amery Diary, 1 Aug. 1918; Roskill, , Hankey, pp. 584, 586. ‘Wully’ referred to the former C.I.G.S., F.M. Sir William Robertson.Google Scholar
109 I.W.C. 27A, 31 July 1918.
110 Terraine, John, Douglas Haig: The Educated Soldier (London, 1963), p. 401.Google Scholar
111 I.W.C. 27A, 31 July; I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
112 Hankey, , Supreme Command, II, 829–30; I.W.C. 30, 13 Aug. 1918.Google Scholar
113 I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918; Draft Report, Conclusion 15, para. 27. The British Commander in Italy, Lord Cavan, also thought that Italy offered opportunities in 1918: I.W.C. 26A, 23 July 1918.
114 I.W.C. 29A, 8 Aug. 1918; Borden MSS, ‘Memoir Notes, 1918’, Borden to Mewburn, 20 June 1918; Borden, , Memoirs, II, 835–6.Google Scholar
115 Draft Report, Conclusion 17, paras. 30–3; I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug.; I.W.C. 29A, 8 Aug.; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
116 Draft Report, Conclusion 23, paras. 43, 44; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
117 Draft Report, Conclusions 6, 7, paras. 14, 16. In 1919, only 300,000 men, as opposed to 700,000 in 1918, were available for military service. Statements were heard on aircraft production at I.W.C. 22, 28 June; on tanks at I.W.C. 24, 12 July; and on manpower at I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
118 Draft Report, Conclusion 7, paras. 17, 18; Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-11, 12 June 1918.
119 I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
120 I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918; Draft Report, Conclusion 1, para. 23. The General Staff’s calculations are in Cab. 27/8, WP-71, ‘Estimate of Allied and Enemy Strengths’, 10 Aug. 1918. The Committee, or rather Hankey, calculated an allied superiority in 1919 of 600,000–700,000 men, which, besides being an ‘over-sanguine’ estimate, was insufficient for success: Draft Report, Conclusion 13, paras. 25, 26.
121 Draft Report, Conclusions 19, 20, paras. 36–40; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
122 Draft Report, Conclusion 8, para. 19; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918. See Borden's statement in I.W.C. 16, 13 June, and Cab. 24/35, GT-4909, GT-4910, GT-4911, GT-4913, 21 June 1918, for Canada's manpower and production programme.
123 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
124 I.W.C. 27A, 31 July; I.W.C. 27B, 1 Aug. 1918.
125 Amery MSS, E.72, Memorandum, ‘War Aims and Military Policy’, 15 June 1918; I.W.C. 31, 14 Aug.; I.W.C. 32, 15 Aug. 1918.
126 Amery MSS, E.61, Borden to Amery, 22 Aug. 1918.
127 I.W.C. 30, 13 Aug. 1918.
128 I.W.C. 27A, 31 July; I.W.C. 32, 15 Aug.; I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
129 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
130 Draft Report, Conclusions 22–7, paras. 43–8.
131 Draft Report, Conclusions 19, 21, para. 42.
132 I.W.C. 20, 25 June 1918.
133 Cab. 23/5, W.C. 353(12), 25 Feb. 1918; I.W.C. 19, 20 June 1918.
134 Cab. 23/6, W.C. 413(12); Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-3, 17 May 1918.
135 Borden MSS, O'C. 515, Milner MSS, Box A-D/13, Amery to Borden, 11 June 1918, enclosing ‘Policy in the Eastern Theatre’, by Maj.-Gen. J. Knox, 9 June 1918. Expression of support was given by Lloyd George in I.W.C. 15, 10 June; Balfour in I.W.C. 19, 20 June; Curzon in I.W.C. 20, 25 June, and Smuts and Milner in I.W.C. 31, 14 Aug. and I.W.C. 32, 15 Aug. 1918.
136 I.W.C. 19B, 24 June; I.W.C. 20A, 26 June 1918; Cab. 24/55, GT-4948, ‘Mr. Lloyd George's Interview with M. Alexander Kerensky’, 24 June 1918.
137 I.W.C. 19, 20 June; I.W.C. 21, 27 June 1918. Amery noted that ‘it was decided, i.e. by Hankey and myself’ to appeal to Wilson: Amery Diary, 20 June 1918.
138 I.W.C. 22, 28 June 1918; Cab. 25/8, I.C. 71, 2 July 1918; I.W.C. 23, 9 July 1918.
139 Borden MSS, O'C. 518(1), War Office to Pres., Privy Council, 9 July; Mewburn to C.G.S., Ottawa, 12 July 1918; I.W.C. 24B, 16 July 1918.
140 I.W.C. 24B, 16 July 1918; Borden MSS, O'C. 518(i), Borden to White, 25 July 1918; Cab. 23/17, ‘X’-26, 27 July 1918.
141 I.W.C. 27C, 6 Aug. 1918. The story of the Canadians in Siberia is told in: Smith, G. G., ‘Canada and the Siberian Intervention, 1918–1919’, American Historical Review, LXIV (07, 1959), 866–77;CrossRefGoogle ScholarSwettenham, J., Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918-igig, and the tart Played by Canada (Toronto, 1969).Google Scholar A request for another battalion to serve at Archangel was declined: Borden MSS, O'C. 518(i), Kemp to Borden, 1 Aug.; Borden to Kemp, 2 Aug. 1918. However, a volunteer contingent was sanctioned: Strakhovsky, L. I., ‘The Canadian Artillery Brigade in Northern Russia, 1918–1919’, Canadian Historical Review, XXXIX (06, 1958), 125–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
142 Borden MSS, ‘Memoir Notes, 1918’, 24 Aug. 1918; Canadian Annual Review, 1918, pp. 419–20.
143 I.W.C. 32B, 16 Aug. 1918.
144 Lloyd George MSS, F/23/3/13, Hankey to Lloyd George, 4 Sept. 1918.
145 Lloyd George MSS, F/5/2/19, Borden to Lloyd George, 8 Sept. 1918. There was some Canadian concern about the casualties, see Roskill, , Hankey, pp. 599–600.Google Scholar
146 Perley MSS, 11/341, Lloyd George MSS, F/5/2/20, Borden to Lloyd George, 8 Sept. 1918.
147 Lloyd George MSS, F/5/2/21, Lloyd George to Borden, 8 Sept. 1918.
The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the Canada Council and of the President's Research Grants Committee, Simon Fraser University, during the preparation of this article.
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