Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vfjqv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-29T05:28:11.225Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A Line in the Sand? Explorations of the Cultural Heritage Value of Hominid, Pongid, and Robotid Artifacts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 September 2007

Dirk H. R. Spennemann
Affiliation:
Institute of Land, Water and Society. E-mail: dspennemann@csu.edu.au

Abstract

Although cultural heritage management is an inherently retrospective discipline, there is a need for strategic forward thinking. Too many valuable heritage places have been lost because they are not recognized and assessed in time. As cultural heritage management begins to examine modern structures and sites, this paper takes strategic thinking in cultural heritage management one step further and addresses the management of artifactual material created by our closest relatives, the great apes. Given the increasing understanding that chimpanzees have cultures and traditions in tool use, there is a need to recognize their heritage value in reference to human evolution.

Expanding the concept of nonhuman heritage into the future, it is now also time to explore how to deal with the artifacts that the first artificial intelligence (AI)-imbued, self-reflecting robots will create. By extension, which artifacts will be kept along the way? The contemplation of the role of nonhuman heritage will ultimately foster a reappraisal of human heritage. The article outlines some of the conceptual issues that must be addressed if our heritage is to have an ethical future.*Institute of Land, Water and Society. Email: e-mail dspennemann@csu.edu.au

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© 2007 International Cultural Property Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alonso, E., M. d'Inverno, D. Kudenko, et al. “Learning in Multi-Agent Systems.” Knowledge Engineering Review 16 no. 3 (2001): 27784.Google Scholar
Ambrose, Stanley H.Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution.” Science 291, no. 5509 (2001): 174854.Google Scholar
Asimov, Isaac. “Liar!” In Astounding Science Fiction, May 1941, 4355.
Asimov, Isaac. “Runaround.” In Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942, 94103.
Asimov, Isaac. Robots and Empire. New York: Doubleday, 1985.
Bandi, H.-G.Der Topfknick oder die unterschiedliche Wertung der Domestikation des Menschen.” In Festschrift für Günter Smolla. Materialien zur Vor-und Frühgeschichte von Hessen Band 8, vol. 1, 1724. Wiesbaden: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Hessen Abteilung archäologische und paläontologische Denkmalpflege, 1999.
Barclay, R.L., and R. Brooks. “In situ preservation of historic spacecraft.” JBIS-Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 55, no. 5–6 (2002): 17381.Google Scholar
Bartneck, C.From Fiction to Science: A Cultural Reflection of Social Robots.” In CHI 2004 Workshop on Shaping Human-Robot Interaction: Understanding the Social Aspects of Intelligent Robotic Products, edited by J. Forlizzi and C. Bartneck. Vienna, 2004. http://www.bartneck.de/workshop/chi2004 (accessed April 25, 2004).
Bates, D.G., and F.Y. Plog. Cultural Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.
Beck, B.B. Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools By Animals. New York: Garland Press, 1980.
Bednarik, R.G.Seafaring in the Pleistocene.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13 (2003): 4166.Google Scholar
Bellomo, R.V.Methods of Determining Early Hominid Behavioral Activities Associated with the Controlled Use of Fire at FxJj 20 Main, Koobi Fora, Kenya.” Journal of Human Evolution 27, no. 1–3 (1994): 17395.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., and M. Tomasello. “Chimpanzee and Human Cultures.” Current Anthropology 39 no. 5 (1998): 591614.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., and H. Boesch. “Optimisation of Nut-Cracking with Natural Hammers by Wild Chimpanzees.” Behaviour 83 (1983): 26586.Google Scholar
Boesch, C.Mental Map in Wild Chimpanzees: An Analysis of Hammer Transports for Nut Cracking.” Primates 25 (1984): 16070.Google Scholar
Boesch, C.Tool Use and Tool Making in Wild Chimpanzees.” Folia Primatologica 54 (1990): 8699.Google Scholar
Boswell, J. Life of Samuel Johnson. London: JM Dent, 1901.
Bower, Bruce. “Wild Chimps Rocked On: Apes Left Unique Record of Stone Tool.” Science News 161, no. 13 (2002): 195.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., and P.J. Richerson. “Why Culture Is Common but Cultural Evolution Is Rare.” In Evolution of Social Behaviour Patterns in Primates and Man Proceedings of the British Academy, edited by W.G. Runciman, John Maynard Smith, and R.I.M. Dunbar, 7793, London: British Academy, 1996.
Boysen S.T., V.A. Kuhlmeier, P.O. Halliday, et al. “Tool Use in Captive Gorillas.” In The Mentalities of Gorillas and Orangutans: Comparative Perspectives, edited by S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell, and H.L. Miles, 79187, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Breuer, T., M. Ndoundou-Hockemba, and V. Fishloc. “First Observation of Tool Use in Wild Gorillas.” PLoS Biology 3, no. 11, e380 (2005): 204244.Google Scholar
Burba, J., and P.L. Frana. “Researching the History of Software: Mining Internet Resources in the ‘Old World,’ ‘New World,’ and the ‘Wild West’.” Iterations: A Journal of Software History, 2002. http://www.cbi.umn.edu/iterations/burbafrana.pdf (accessed April 23, 2007).Google Scholar
Butowsky, H.A. Man in Space: A National Historic Landmark Theme Study. N.P.S., U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984.
Campbell, John B. Assessing, and Managing Human Space Heritage In the Solar System: The Current State of Play and Some Proposals. World Archaeological Congress 5. Themes The Heavens Above: Archaeoastronomy, Space Heritage And SETI, 2003. http://godot.unisa.edu.au/wac/paper.php?paper=1049 (accessed April 23, 2007).
Čapek, K. R.U.R.—Rosumovi Umělí Roboti [Rossum's Universal Robots], 1920. Digital version of Czech original available at http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13083 (accessed April 23, 2007).
Celli, M.L., S. Hirata, and M. Tomonaga. “Socioecological Influences on Tool Use in Captive Chimpanzees.” International Journal of Primatology 25, no. 6 (2004): 126781.Google Scholar
Cervone, Guido, Ryszard S. Michalski, Kenneth K, et al. Combining Machine Learning With Evolutionary Computation: Recent Results on LEM. Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Multistrategy Learning (MSL-2000), Guimarães, Portugal, June 11–14, 2000. Pp. 4158.
Chappell, J., and A. Kacelnik. “Tool Selectivity in a Non-Primate, the New Caledonian Crow (Corvus moneduloides).” Animal Cognition 5 (2002): 7178.Google Scholar
Chou, W.The Growing Role of IT in Transportation.” IT Professional 5, no. 6 (2003): 56.Google Scholar
Cohen, H.The Further Exploits of AARON, Painter.” Stanford Humanities Review SEHR 4 no. 2 (1995): 141158.Google Scholar
Dautenhahn, K., S. Woods, C. Kaouri, et al. What is a Robot Companion: Friend, Assistant or Butler? Proceedings of the IROS 2005, IEEE IRS/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, August 2–6, 2005, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 14881493.
de Waal, F.B.M.Cultural Primatology Comes of Age.” Nature 399, no. 6737 (1999): 63536.Google Scholar
deGusta, D.Comparative Skeletal Pathology and the Case for Conspecific Care in Middle Pleistocene Hominids.” Journal of Archaeological Science 29 (2002): 143538.Google Scholar
Dick, Steven J.Cultural Evolution, the Postbiological Universe and SETI. International Journal of Astrobiology 2, no. 1 (2003): 6574.Google Scholar
Elshaw, M., D. Lewis, and S. Wermter. Incorporating Reactive Learning Behaviour into a Mini-robot Platform. Proceedings of AI-2003, the 23rd SGAI International Conference on Innovative Techniques and Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Edited by Frans Coenen, Alun Preece, and Ann Macintosh. London; New York: Springer, 2003: 255266.
Fewer, Greg. “Towards an LSMR and MSMR (Lunar and Martian Sites and Monuments Records): Recording Planetary Spacecraft Landing Sites as Archaeological Monuments of The Future.” In Digging Holes in Popular Culture, edited by Miles Russell, 11220. Oxford: Oxbow, 2002.
Fong, T., I. Nourbakhsh, and K. Dautenhahn. “A Survey of Socially Interactive Robots.” Robotics and Autonomous Systems 42 (2003): 14366.Google Scholar
Fontain, B., P.Y. Moisson, E. J Wickings. “Observations of Spontaneous Tool Making and Tool Use in a Captive Group of Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla Gorilla Gorilla).” Folia Primatologica 65 (1995) 21923.Google Scholar
Fox E.A., A.F. Sitompul, C.P. van Schaik. “Intelligent Tool Use in Wild Sumatran Orangutans.” In The Mentalities of Gorillas and Orangutans: Comparative Perspectives, edited by S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell, and H.L. Miles, 99116. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Fox, D.Brainbox.” New Scientist 188, no. 2524 (2005): 2832.Google Scholar
Gage, Douglas W.UGV HISTORY 101: A Brief History of Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) Development Efforts.” Unmanned Systems Magazine 13, no. 3 (1995): 9–16, 32.Google Scholar
Gold, K.C.Ladder Use and Clubbing by a Bonobo (Pan paniscus) in Apenheul Primate Park.” Zoo Biology 21, no. 6 (2002): 60711.Google Scholar
Goodall, J.Chimpanzees of the Gombe Stream Reserve.” In Primate Behaviour, edited by I. DeVore. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965.
Goodman, M., D.A. Tagle, D.H. Fitch, et al.Primate Evolution at the DNA Level and a Classification of Hominoids.” Journal of Molecular Evolution 30 (1990): 26066.Google Scholar
Goren-Inbar, Naama, Nira Alperson, Mordechai E. Kislev, et al. “Evidence of Hominin Control of Fire at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel.” Science 304, no. 5671 (2004): 72527.Google Scholar
Gorman, Alice C.The Cultural Landscape of Interplanetary Space.” Journal of Social Archaeology 5, no. 1 (2005): 85107.Google Scholar
Gorman, Alice C. The Archaeology of Orbital Space. Presented at the Australian Space Science Conference, 14 to 16 September, 2005, Melbourne, Australia: RMIT University. 33857.
Granlund, G., K., Kuchcinski, E., Sandewall, et al. The WITAS Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Project. In W. Horn (ed.): ECAI 2000. Proceedings of the 14th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Berlin, August 20–25, 2000. IOS Press, Amsterdam.
Haynes, G.Archeological Methods for Reconstructing Human Predation on Terrestrial Vertebrates.” In The Fossil Record of Predation, edited by M. Kowaleswski and P. Kelly. The Paleontological Society Papers 8 (2002): 5167.
Herzfeld, C., and D. Lestel. “Knot Tying in Great Apes: Etho-Ethnology of an Unusual Tool Behavior.” Social Science Information 44, no. 4 (2005): 62153Google Scholar
Jacob, B.L. Composing With Genetic Algorithms. Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, Banff, Alberta, Canada, September 1995.
Japan Times. “New Osaka Shop to Promote ‘Robot Culture.’” Japan Times, December 18, 2004. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/business/nb12-2004/nb20041218a5.htm (accessed April 23, 2007).
Jenkins, P.F.Cultural Transmission of Song Patterns and Dialect Development in a Free-Living Bird Population.” Animal Behaviour 26 (1978): 5078.Google Scholar
Keane A.J., andP.B. Nair. “Problem Solving Environments in Aerospace Design.” Advances in Engineering Software 32, no. 6 (2001): 47787.Google Scholar
Kitano, H., M. Asada, Y. Kuniyoshi, et al. RoboCup: The Robot World Cup Initiative. International Conference on Autonomous Agents. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Autonomous agents. Marina del Rey, California. February 5–8, 1997, 34047, 1997.
Krichmar, J. L., D.A. Nitz, J.A. Gally, et al. “Characterizing Functional Hippocampal Pathways in a Brain-Based Device as It Solves a Spatial Memory Task.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (2005): 211116.Google Scholar
Krützen, M., J. Mann, M.R. Heithaus, et al. “Cultural Transmission of Tool Use in Bottlenose Dolphins.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, no. 25 (2005): 893943.Google Scholar
Kuman, K. “The Oldowan Industry from Sterkfontein: Raw Materials and Core Forms.” In Aspects of African Archaeology: Papers from the 10th Congress of the PanAfrican Association for Prehistory and Related Studies, edited by G. Pwiti and R. Soper R., 13946. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, 1996.
Lebel, S., E. Trinkaus, M. Faure, et al. “Comparative Morphology and Paleobiology of Middle Pleistocene Human Remains from the Bau de l'Aubesier, Vaucluse, France.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98 (2001): 11097102.Google Scholar
Manuel, Tyrus L.Creating a Robot Culture: An Interview with Luc Steels.” IEEE Intelligent Systems 18, no. 3 (2003): 5961.Google Scholar
Marx, K. Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Oekonomie. Erster Band. Buch I: Der Produktionsprocess des Kapitals. Vierte Auflage. Marx-Engels-Werke Bd 23. Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1867 (1952).
Mercader, J., M. Panger, and C. Boesch. “Excavation of a Chimpanzee Stone Tool Site in the African Rainforest.” Science 296 (2002): 145255.Google Scholar
Mercader, J. Chimpanzee-Produced Stone Assemblages from the Tropical Forests of Taï, Côte d'Ivoire. Paleoanthropology Society Meetings. Denver, CO, March 19, 2002. Abstract http://www.paleoanthro.org/abst2002.htm#mercader (accessed April 23, 2007).
Miller, G.Tool Study Supports Chimp Culture.” Science 309, no. 5739 (2005): 1311.Google Scholar
Mundinger, P.C.Animal Cultures and a General Theory of Cultural Evolution.” Ethology and Sociobiology 1 (1980): 183223.Google Scholar
Murtagh, W.J. Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1997.
NEC. Child Care Robot. PaReRo 2003. Product Information Page. NEC Personal Robot Research Center, 2005. http://www.incx.nec.co.jp/robot/english/childcare/how.html (accessed April 23, 2007).
NEC. Child Care Robot. PaReRo 2005. Product Information Page. NEC Personal Robot Research Center, 2005. http://www.incx.nec.co.jp/robot/english/papero2005/index.html (accessed April 23, 2007).
NEC. Child Care Robot. PaReRo. 2003. “He has a character like a human being.” Product Information Page. NEC Personal Robot Research Center, 2005. http://www.incx.nec.co.jp/robot/english/2003papero/english/gijyutu3.html (accessed April 23, 2007).
NEC. Child Care Robot. PaReRo 2003. “Creating a Robot Culture.” Product Information Page. NEC Personal Robot Research Center, 2005. http://www.incx.nec.co.jp/robot/english/2003papero/english/index.html (accessed April 23, 2007).
O'Malley, R.C., and W.C. McGrew. “Oral Tool Use by Captive Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus).” Folia Primatologica 71 (2000): 33441.Google Scholar
Oakley, K.P. Man the Toolmaker, 3rd ed. London: British Museum, 1956.
Ovchinnikov, I.V., A. Gotherstrom, G.P. Romanova, et al. “Molecular Analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern Caucasus.” Nature 404, no. 6777 (2000): 45354Google Scholar
Panger, M.A., A.S. Brooks, B.G. Richmond, et al. “Older than the Oldowan? Rethinking the Emergence of Hominin Tool Use.” Evolutionary Anthropology 11, no. 6, 23545.
Pettitt, P.B.The Neanderthal Dead: Exploring Mortuary Variability in Middle Palaeolithic Eurasia.” Before Farming: The Anthropology of Hunters-Gatherers 1, no. 4 (2002): 119Google Scholar
Pollack, J.B., H. Lipson, G. Hornby, et al. “Three Generations of Automatically Designed Robots.” Artificial Life 7, no. 3 (2001): 21523.Google Scholar
Reed, E.New Light on the Origins of Man.” International Socialist Review 24, no. 3 (1963): 8183.Google Scholar
Rendell, L., and H. Whitehead. “Culture in Whales and Dolphins.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24, no. 2 (2001): 30982Google Scholar
Riedman, M.L., M.M. Staedier, J.A. Estes, et al. The transmission of individually distinctive foraging strategies from mother to offspring in sea otters (Enhydra lutris). From the Eighth Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals. Pacific Grove, CA, 7–11 December, 1989.
Robson Brown, Kate. “The Meaning of Hominid Species: Culture as Process and Product?Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23, no. 1 (2002); 157.Google Scholar
Rogers, T.F.Safeguarding Tranquility Base: Why the Earth's Moon Base Should Become a World Heritage Site.” Space Policy 20, no. 1 (2004): 56.Google Scholar
Sandin, Per, Martin Hansson Peterson, Christina Sven Ove Rudén, et al. “Five Charges Against the Precautionary Principle.” Journal of Risk Research 5, no. 4 (2002): 28799.Google Scholar
Saygin, A.P., I. Cicekli, and V. Akman. “Turing Test: 50 Years Later.” Minds and Machines 10, no. 4 (2000): 463518.Google Scholar
Schick, K., and N. Toth. Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993.
Schick, K., N. Toth, G. Garufi, et al. “Continuing Investigations into Stone Tool-Making and Tool-Using Capabilities of a Bonobo (Pan paniscus).” Journal of Archeological Science 26, (1999): 82132.Google Scholar
Schlombs, C.Digital Archives for the History of Software: The Allen Newell Collection and the Herbert A. Simon Collection.” Iterations: A Journal of Software History 1 (2002). http://www.cbi.umn.edu/iterations/schlombs.pdf (accessed April 23, 2007).Google Scholar
Slaughter, R. Futures for the Third Millennium. Sydney: Prospect Media, 1997.
Smolla, G. Epochen menschlicher Frühzeit. Freiburg & München: Karl Aber, 1967.
Spennemann, D.H.R.The Ethics of Treading on Neil Armstrong's Footsteps.” Space Policy 20, no. 4 (2004): 27990.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.The Naval Heritage of Project Apollo: A Case of Losses.” Journal of Maritime Research, October 2005, http://www.jmr.nmm.ac.uk/spennemann (accessed April 23, 2007).Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.Out of this world: Issues of Managing Tourism and Humanity's Heritage on the Moon.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 12, no. 4 (2006): 35671.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.Gauging Community Values in Historic Preservation.” CRM: The Journal of Heritage Stewardship 3, no. 2 (2006): 620.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.Your Solution, Their Problem. Their Solution, Your Problem: The Gordian Knot of Cultural Heritage Planning and Management at the Local Government Level.” disP 42, no. 164 (2006): 3040.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.On the Cultural Heritage of Robots.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 13, no. 1 (2007): 421Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.Of Great Apes and Robots: Considering the Future(s) of Cultural Heritage.” Futures–The Journal of Policy, Planning and Futures Studies 39, no. 7 (2007): 86177.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R.‘Preserving the Past for the Future.’ Altruism, Egotism and the Future of Historic Preservation.” CRM: The Journal of Heritage Stewardship 5, no. 2, (2008), forthcoming.Google Scholar
Spennemann, D.H.R., and L. Kosmer. “Heritage Sites of the US Space Program in Australia: Are We Managing Them Adequately?QUEST—The History of Spaceflight Quarterly 12, no. 2 (2005): 5264.Google Scholar
Spennemann, Dirk H.R., and Guy Murphy. “Technological Heritage on Mars: Towards a Future of Terrestrial Artifacts on the Martian Surface.” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 60, no. 2 (2007): 4253.Google Scholar
Spicer, D.The IBM 1620 Restoration Project.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 27 (2005): 3343.Google Scholar
Sugiyama, Y., and J. Koman. “Tool-Using and Tool-Making Behaviour in Wild Chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea.” Primates 20 (1979): 51324.Google Scholar
Taylor, F.H. The Taste of Angels. A History of Collecting from Ramases to Napoleon. Boston and London: Little Brown & Co., 1948.
Tebbich, S., and R. Bshary. “Cognitive Abilities Related to Tool Use in the Woodpecker Finch Cactospiza pallida.” Animal Behaviour 67, no. 4 (2004): 68997.Google Scholar
Thornberg, Christopher A., and James P. Cycon. “Sikorsky Aircraft's Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Cypher: System Description and Program Accomplishments.” 51st AHS Annual Forum 9–11 May 1995, Fort Worth, TX. 80411, 1995.
Toth, N., K. Schick, and S. Sema. A Technological Comparison of the Stone Tool-Making Capabilities of Australopithecus/Early Homo, Pan paniscus, and Homo sapiens, and Possible Evolutionary Implications. Paleoanthropology Society Meetings. Denver, CO, March 19, 2002. Abstract http://www.paleoanthro.org/abst2002.htm#toth (accessed April 23, 2007).
Toth, N., K. Schick, E.S. Savage-Rumbaugh, et al. “Pan the Tool-Maker: Investigations into the Stone Toolmaking and Tool-Using Capabilities of Bonobo [Pigmy Chimp] (Pan paniscus).” Journal of Archaeological Science 20 (1993): 8191.Google Scholar
Tunbridge, J. E., and G.J. Ashworth. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
Turing, A.M.Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Mind 49 (1950): 43360.Google Scholar
UNESCO. UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity 2 November 2001. In United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Records of the General Conference, 31st Session Paris, Volume 1 Resolutions. Paris, France, October 15–November 3, 2001, 6264.
van Schaik C.P., R.O. Deaner, and M.Y. Merrill. “The Conditions for Tool Use in Primates: Implications for the Evolution of Material Culture.” Journal of Human Evolution 36, no. 6 (1999): 71941.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C.P., and Gauri R. Pradhana. “A Model for Tool-Use Traditions in Primates: Implications for the Coevolution of Culture and Cognition. Journal of Human Evolution 44 (2003): 64564.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C.P., M. Ancrenaz, G. Borgen, et al. “Orangutan Cultures and the Evolution of Material Culture.” Science 299, no. 5603 (2003): 10205.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C.P., E.A. Fox, and L.T. Fechtman. “Individual Variation in the Rate of Use of Tree-Hole Tools Among Wild Orang-Utans: Implications for Hominin Evolution.” Journal of Human Evolution 44, no. 1 (2003): 1123.Google Scholar
Visalberghi, E., D.M. Fragaszy, and S. Savage-Rumbaugh. “Performance in a Tool-Using Task by Common Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Bonobos (Pan paniscus), an Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), and Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella).” Journal of Comparative Psychology. 109, no. 1 (1995): 5260.Google Scholar
Vogel, G.Chimps in the Wild Show Stirrings of Culture.” Science 284, no. 5423 (1999): 207074.Google Scholar
Vogel, G.Can Chimps Ape Ancient Hominid Toolmakers?Science 296, no. 5572 (2002): 1380.Google Scholar
Watson, R.A., S.G. Ficici, and J.B. Pollack. “Embodied Evolution: Distributing an Evolutionary Algorithm in a Population of Robots.” Robotics and Autonomous Systems 39 no. 1 (2002): 118.Google Scholar
World Heritage Center. The World Heritage List. Alphabetically by State Party, 2004. http://whc.unesco.org/heritage.htm (accessed April 19, 2007).
Whiten, A.Commentary to Christophe Boesch and Michael Tomasello's ‘Chimpanzee and Human Cultures.’Current Anthropology 39, no. 5 (1998): 60910.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., J. Goodall, W.C. McGrew, et al. “Cultures in Chimpanzees.” Nature 399 (1999): 682685.Google Scholar
Widmer, G.Machine Discoveries: A Few Simple, Robust Local Expression Principles.” Journal of New Music Research 31, no. 1 (2002): 3750.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R.W., J.H. Jones, G. Laden, et al. (1999) “The Raw and the Stolen: Cooking and the Ecology of Human Origins.” Current Anthropology 40, no. 5 (1999): 56794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, R.V.S.Imitative Learning of a Flaked Stone Technology: The Case of an Orangutan.” Mankind 8 (1972): 296306.Google Scholar
Wright, R.V.S. E-mail to the author, November 13, 2005.
Wyn, T.Archaeology and Cognitive Evolution.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25, no. 3 (2002): 389402.Google Scholar
Young, Richard W.Evolution of the Human Hand: The Role of Throwing and Clubbing.” Journal of Anatomy 202, no. 1 (2003): 16574.Google Scholar