Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-cjp7w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-15T21:16:35.790Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“How Many Black Hippies Do You See?” The Counterculture in Black and White

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 May 2024

CHRIS A. RASMUSSEN Open the ORCID record for CHRIS A. RASMUSSEN [Opens in a new window]
CHRIS A. RASMUSSEN*
Affiliation:
Department of Social Sciences and History, Fairleigh Dickinson University. Email: chrisr@fdu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Historians have treated the counterculture largely as a white phenomenon and drawn sharp boundaries between its escapism and the political engagement of the Black freedom struggle. A look at the counterculture's origins and growth in the late 1950s and the 1960s reveals that the counterculture intersected with Black culture in many ways. White beats, hipsters, and hippies generally admired the civil rights movement's support for equality and nonviolence, but sometimes scoffed at its effort to gain integration into American society. Hippies considered themselves outsiders from society and imagined that they shared affinity with Black Americans. Blacks’ responses to the counterculture ranged from contempt to curiosity to embrace. Some Blacks despised the hippies’ lifestyle and political apathy, but others considered the counterculture an important challenge to “the System.” American culture, style, literature, and music were all affected by the counterculture's experimentalism. The counterculture changed white culture, Black culture, and American culture. Drawing boundaries between cultural forms proves less instructive than focussing on the connections between them.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of American Studies , First View , pp. 1 - 26
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press in association with British Association for American Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 “Commies versus Hippies,” Berkeley Barb, 2 June 1967, 7.

2 Miller, Timothy, Hippies and American Values (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), 6Google Scholar. Rorabaugh, W. J., American Hippies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stuart Hall, “The Hippies – An American ‘Moment’,” Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, SP 16(1968), [10]. See also Moretta, John Anthony, The Hippies: A 1960s History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2017)Google Scholar; Bach, Damon R., The American Counterculture: A History of Hippies and Cultural Dissidents (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2020)Google Scholar; Lemke-Santangelo, Gretchen, Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009)Google Scholar; Braunstein, Peter and Doyle, Michael William, eds., Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s and ’70s (New York: Routledge, 2001)Google Scholar; Perry, Charles, The Haight Ashbury: A History (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Barry Miles, Hippie (New York: Sterling Publishing Co., 2005)Google Scholar; Saldanha, Arun, Psychedelic White: Goa Trance and the Viscosity of Race (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 11–20Google Scholar; Zimmerman, Nadya, Counterculture Kaleidoscope: Musical and Cultural Perspectives on Late Sixties San Francisco (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cottrell, Robert C., Sex, Drugs, and Rock ’n’ Roll: The Rise of America's 1960s Counterculture (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015)Google Scholar; Chapman, Rob, Psychedelia and Other Colors (New York: Faber & Faber, 2015)Google Scholar; Hall, Sarah, San Francisco and the Long 60s (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John Robert Howard, “The Flowering of the Hippie Movement,” AAAPS, 382 (March 1969), 43–55. For pointed critiques of the counterculture see Hinckle, Warren, “A Social History of the Hippies,” Ramparts, 5, 7 (March 1967), 5–26Google Scholar; Louis Menand, “Life in the Stone Age,” New Republic, 7 Jan. 1991, 38–44. For a colorful documentary about hippies see Revolution, dir. Jack O'Connell, Robert J. Leder Co. and Omicron Films, 1968.

3 On the counterculture's complexity and contradictions see Kramer, Michael J., The Republic of Rock: Music and Citizenship in the Sixties Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 9–10Google Scholar; Braunstein and Doyle, 10; Brick, Howard, Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s, reprint (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 114Google Scholar.

4 Jerry Belcher, “Fear, Not Flowers,” San Francisco Examiner, 29 Sept. 1968, 3.

5 Roszak, Theodore, The Making of a Counter Culture (Garden City, NY, 1969), xi–xiv, 1–41Google Scholar, 44, 73. Roszak conceded that most Black youths could not drop out of American society because they had not yet gained inclusion in it, but predicted that a growing Black middle class would ultimately “produce its own ungrateful young.”

6 Smith, Sherry, Hippies, Indians, and the Fight for Red Power (New York, Oxford University Press, 2012), 13Google Scholar. On the exchange of white and Black youth culture and musical forms in Britain see Hebdige, Dick, Subculture: The Meaning of Style (London: Methuen & Co., 1979), 46–49Google Scholar.

7 Moretta, 7–31; Rorabaugh, 4–5, 15–48; Bach, American Counterculture, 1–36.

8 Lott, Eric, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Douglas, Ann, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1995)Google Scholar.

9 Mailer, Norman, “The White Negro: Superficial Reflections on the Hipster,” Dissent, 4 (1957), 276–93Google Scholar. Field, Douglas, “Beats, Black Culture and Bohemianism,” in Ross Wilson, ed., New York: A Literary History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 240–51Google Scholar; Campbell, James, This Is the Beat Generation: New York–San Francisco–Paris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 79–82Google Scholar, 140–42; 208–9; Belletto, Steven, The Beats: A Literary History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Menand, Louis, The Free World: Art and Thought in the Cold War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021), 171–96Google Scholar, 477–87.

10 Kerouac, Jack, On the Road (New York: Penguin, 2011), 170Google Scholar.

11 Field.

12 Paul O'Neil, “The Only Rebellion Around,” Life, 30 Nov. 1959, 114–16 ff.

13 Bob Cottrol, “Black Beatniks in the Village,” Amsterdam News, 25 June 1960, 1, 18; Cottrol, “Beatniks Beat in the Village?”, Amsterdam News, 2 July 1960, 1, 34.

14 Gruen, John, The New Bohemia: The Combine Generation (New York: Shorecrest, 1966), 16Google Scholar. See also Gruen, “The New Bohemia,” New York Herald Tribune Magazine, 29 Nov. 1964, 8–9, 11–13; Gruen, “Action + Anxiety = Chaos: Notes on the New Bohemia,” East Village Other, 1, 17 (1 Aug. 1966), 3, 14.

15 Gruen, New Bohemia, 6–18, 162, 173, 178, esp. 7–9; John Gruen, “Where Is New Bohemia Going?”, Vogue, 1 Aug. 1967, 101, 141; Charlotte Curtis, “The Affluent Set Invades the East Village,” New York Times, 29 Nov. 1964, 85.

16 Ishmael Reed, “Rise and Fall of a Mini-renaissance,” in “From Woodstock to Sarah Palin, or Not,” New York Times, 9 Aug. 2009, https://archive.nytimes.com/roomfordebate.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/08/09/from-woodstock-to-sarah-palin.

17 Robert Cohen and Reginald E. Zelnik, eds., The Free Speech Movement: Reflections on Berkeley in the 1960s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 1–102.

18 Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Ballantine Books, 2015), 96–97, original emphasis.

19 “Affirming Humanness,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 1 (20 Sept. 1966), 2; Rorabaugh, American Hippies, 5–6.

20 “A Gathering of the Tribes for a Human Be-In,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 5 (Jan. 1967), front cover; “The Gathering of the Tribes,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 5 (Jan. 1967), 2; “The Beginning Is the Human Be-In,” Berkeley Barb, 6 Jan. 1967, 1; Moretta, Hippies, 117–38; John McMillian, Smoking Typewriters: The Sixties Underground Press and the Rise of Alternative Media in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

21 Walter Bowart, “San Francisco, Avalon Uncovered,” East Village Other, 2, 10 (15 April 1967), 1, 3–5, quotation at 3.

22 Hendrik Hertzberg, “Dropouts with a Mission,” Newsweek, 6 Feb. 1967, 92, 95. See also Steve Levine, “A Gathering of the Tribes: The First American Mehla,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 6 (Feb. 1967), 9, 24; Bach, American Counterculture, 101–6; Rorabaugh, 63, 65. For a widely read account of the Summer of Love see “The Hippies,” Time, 7 July 1967, 18–22.

23 Mark Harris, “The Flowering of the Hippies,” Atlantic, Sept. 1967, at www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1967/09/the-flowering-of-the-hippies/306619; Moretta, 167–96.

24 “Negroes Angered by Coast Hippies,” New York Times, 24 Sept. 1967, 50. See also Cavan, Sherri, Hippies of the Haight (St. Louis: New Critics Press, 1972), 44, 50–52Google Scholar; Hippler, Arthur E., “The Game of Black and White at Hunters Point,” in Howard S. Becker, ed., Culture and Civility in San Francisco (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Books, 1971), 53–75Google Scholar.

25 “Negroes Wail Hippies Turn Frisco Area into a Real Slum,” Chicago Defender, 7 Oct. 1967, 7.

26 Didion, Joan, Slouching towards Bethlehem (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1968), 124–27Google Scholar, original emphasis; “San Fran Mime Troupe,” East Village Other, 2, 9 (1 April 1967), 15. Coyote, Peter, Sleeping Where I Fall (Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 1998), 39–56Google Scholar; R. G. Davis and Saul Landau, “A Minstrel Show, or Civil Rights in a Cracker Barrel,” in Susan Vaneta Mason, ed., The San Francisco Mime Troupe Reader (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 26–56. Davis, R. G., The San Francisco Mime Troupe: The First Ten Years (Palo Alto, CA: Ramparts Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Orenstein, Claudia, Festive Revolutions: The Politics of Popular Theater and the San Francisco Mime Troupe (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998), 90–123Google Scholar.

27 Yablonsky, Lewis, The Hippie Trip (New York: Pegasus, 1968), 97Google Scholar, 116, 134–46, esp. 145–46; Don McNeill, “Youthquake,” in McNeill, Moving through Here (New York: Knopf, 1970), 91–104.

28 J. Kirk Sale and Ben Apfelbaum, “Report from Teeny-Boppersville,” New York Times Magazine, 27 May 1968, 81.

29 Martin Arnold, “The East Village Today: Hippies Far from Happy as Slum Problems Grow,” New York Times, 15 Oct. 1967, 77

30 John Kifner, “The East Village: A Changing Scene for Hippies,” New York Times, 11 Oct. 1967, 32.

31 Alfred E. Clark, “City Hall Talks on Hippies Held,” New York Times, 3 June 1967, 16; Paul Hofmann, “Hippies Heighten East Side Tensions,” New York Times, 3 June 1967, 16; “Truce,” East Village Other, 2, 14 (15 June 1967), 1; Allan Katzman, “Poor Paranoid's Almanac,” East Village Other, 2, 14 (15 June 1967), 7.

32 “Hippies ‘Integrate’ with Puerto Ricans,” New York Times, 16 Aug. 1967, 36.

33 Martin Arnold, “Organized Hippies Emerge on Coast,” New York Times, 5 May 1967, 41.

34 Murch, Donna Jean, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 119–228Google Scholar; Crowe, Daniel, Prophets of Rage: The Black Freedom Struggle in San Francisco, 1945–1969 (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), 197–235Google Scholar; Hodgdon, Tim, Manhood in the Age of Aquarius: Masculinity in Two Countercultural Communities, 1965–83 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 18Google Scholar.

35 Kifner.

36 Rufus Byars, “Cultural Pluralism – A New Thang at Woodrow,” San Francisco Sun-Reporter, 25 Oct. 1969, 12.

37 Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., “Youth and Social Action,” Massey Lecture, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 4 Dec. 1967, at https://exchange.prx.org/series/31037-martin-luther-king-jr-massey-lectures.

38 Baldwin, James, “To Be Baptized,” in Baldwin, No Name in the Street (New York: Dial Press, 1972), 85–194Google Scholar, esp. 185, 188.

39 Carmichael quoted in Goldberg, Danny, In Search of the Lost Chord: 1967 and the Hippie Idea (New York: Akashic Books, 2017), 242Google Scholar. Joseph, Peniel, Stokely: A Life (New York: Basic Civitas, 2014)Google Scholar. Stokely Carmichael, “Black Power,” in David Cooper, ed., To Free a Generation: The Dialectics of Liberation (New York: Collier Books, 1969), 150–74.

40 Clayton Riley, “Black Nationalists and the Hippies,” Liberator, 7, 12 (Dec. 1967), 4–7; Tinson, Christopher M., Radical Intellect: Liberator Magazine and Black Activism in the 1960s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017)Google Scholar.

41 Charles E. Brown, “The Hippies of Hashberry,” Ebony, Aug. 1967, 116–20.

42 Kenneth B. Clark, “The Search for Identity,” Ebony, Aug. 1967, 42.

43 In 1969, Ebony's “Fashion Fair” included hippie fashions. “Riding High,” Ebony, June 1969, 167–68, 170. Essence magazine, launched in 1970, became the first fashion and lifestyle magazine specifically for Black women. Ford, Tanisha C., Liberated Threads: Black Women Style and the Global Politics of Soul (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017)Google Scholar.

44 Donald R. Hopkins, “Negro Youth,” Ebony, Aug. 1967, 110–12, 114–15. Some Black youths did become hippies. A Black reader wrote to Defender advice columnist Arletta Claire in 1970, distraught that his younger brother was “trying to be a Black hippie,” even though “there is no such thing.” Arletta Claire, “Arletta's Advice: We Can't Waste a Brother,” Chicago Defender, 10 June 1970, 10.

45 On the swarm of merchants and the mass media see Perry, The Haight–Ashbury, 108, 269.

46 “Death of Hip and Birth of Free America,” Berkeley Barb, 29 Sept. 1967, 1, 3; “… So Who Mutha'd the ‘Hippies’?”, Berkeley Barb, 6 Oct. 1967, 1; Jeff Jassen, “X-Hip Editor Freed at Last,” Berkeley Barb, 6 Oct. 1967, 2.

47 John Kifner, “Hippies Fading from City Scene,” New York Times, 26 Aug. 1968, 41; Michael Schechtman, “Holiday Commune a Thing to Groove,” Berkeley Barb, 25 Aug. 1967, 6; Terry A. Reim, “Oompali: Just What We Were Kneading,” Berkeley Barb, 12 July 1968, 7.

48 Louie Robinson, “Life Inside a Hippie Commune,” Ebony, Nov. 1969, 91, 98. Conn, Steven, Americans against the City: Anti-urbanism in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 229–76Google Scholar.

49 Nina Simone quoted in Daloz, Kate, We Are as Gods: Back to the Land in the 1970s on the Quest for a New America (New York: PublicAffairs, 2016), 95Google Scholar; Yablonsky, The Hippie Trip, 193.

50 On the civil rights movement in the North and whites’ resistance to it see Sugrue, Thomas, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008)Google Scholar. Black rebellions continued after 1968. See Hinton, Elizabeth, America on Fire: The Untold History of Police Violence and Black Rebellion since the 1960s (New York: Liveright, 2021)Google Scholar.

51 Whitaker, Mark, Saying It Loud: 1966 – The Year Black Power Challenged the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2023)Google Scholar.

52 Anderson, Terry H., The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), xxiiCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 “Cleaver Tells How He'll Lead,” Berkeley Barb, 23 Aug. 1968, 5. When Black Panther chairman Bobby Seale was imprisoned in 1971 for conspiracy and inciting a riot at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, the Grateful Dead played a benefit concert at the Revolutionary Intercommunal Day of Solidarity in the Oakland Auditorium to raise funds for the Panthers and for Seale's defense.

54 Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: Dell Publishing, 1968), 75.

55 Kathleen Neal Cleaver, “The Summer of Love,” in Kalamu Ya Salaam and Kysha N. Brown, eds., Fertile Ground: Memories & Visions (New Orleans: Runagate Press, 1996), 78–79.

56 Black Panther, 14 Sept. 1968, 10.

57 Lester, Julius, Look Out, Whitey! Black Power's Gon’ Get Your Mama! (New York: Dial Press, 1968), 121Google Scholar.

58 Lester, Julius, “The Yippies,” in Revolutionary Notes (New York: Richard W. Baron, 1969), 79, 81Google Scholar; published in The Guardian, 30 March 1968; Lester, “Yippies in Chicago,” Revolutionary Notes, 152; published in The Guardian, 31 Aug. 1968. On the Yippies’ “theater-in-the-streets” see Jerry Rubin, Do It! Scenarios of the Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster), 132–43. Bach, American Counterculture, 143–48; Moretta, Hippies, 253–84; Rorabaugh, American Hippies, 150–55.

59 Louis Martin, “Youth May Uproot Racism in Attack on Establishment,” Chicago Defender, 18 Oct. 1969, 3.

60 Zabriskie Point, dir. Michelangelo Antonioni, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1970; Harris, Mark, Pictures at a Revolution: Five Movies and the Birth of the New Hollywood (New York: Penguin, 2008), 251–53Google Scholar. Lewis, Jon, Road Trip to Nowhere: Hollywood Encounters the Counterculture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2022), 56–72Google Scholar, 90–94.

61 Amiri Baraka “Black Art,” Liberator, Jan. 1966, 18; Matlin, Daniel, On the Corner: African American Intellectuals and the Urban Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 123–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smethurst, Edward, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Avilez, GerShun, Radical Aesthetics and Modern Black Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; William L. van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

62 Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), Think Black (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1969), 6; Lee, Don't Cry, Scream (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1969), 15; Fanon, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Farrington, Constance (New York: Grove Press, 1968), 206–48Google Scholar; Fanon, “Racism and Culture,” in Fanon, Toward the African Revolution, trans. Haakon Chevalier (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 29–44.

63 Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), “Introduction: Louder but Softer,” in Lee, We Walk the Way of the New World (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1970), 11–24, 13.

64 Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), “A Message All Blackpeople Can Dig,” in Lee, Think Black, 63–64.

65 Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), “Move Un-noticed to Be Noticed: A Nationhood Poem,” in Lee, We Walk the Way of the New World, 64–71, 68, ll. 1, 58–59.

66 Ishmael Reed, “Black Power,” East Village Other, 1, 18 (15 Aug. 1966), 1, 14.

67 Ishmael Reed, “Neo-HooDoo Manifesto,” in Reed, Conjure: Selected Poems, 1963–1970 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1972), 20–25, 20–21. Originally published in the Los Angeles Free Press, 18–24 Sept. 1969.

68 Reed, “Neo-HooDoo Manifesto.”

69 Johnson, James Weldon, The Book of American Negro Poetry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1922)Google Scholar, at https://scalar.lehigh.edu/african-american-poetry-a-digital-anthology/james-weldon-johnson-preface-to-the-book-of-american-negro-poetry-1922.

70 For perceptive analyses of Reed's Neo-HooDoo aesthetic see Henry Louis Gates Jr., “‘On the Blackness of Blackness’: Ishmael Reed and a Critique of the Sign,” in Gates, The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 233–56; Jennifer A. Jordan, “Ideological Tension: Cultural Nationalism and Multiculturalism in the Novels of Ishmael Reed,” in Dana A. Williams, ed., Contemporary African American Fiction: New Critical Essays (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2009), 37–61; McGee, Patrick, Ishmael Reed and the Ends of Race (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

71 Reed, Ishmael, Mumbo Jumbo (New York: Atheneum, 1988; first published 1972), 33Google Scholar.

72 Ibid., 204.

73 Ibid., 218.

74 Kun, Josh, Audiotopia: Music, Race, and America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 26Google Scholar; Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman, Introduction to Radano and Bohlman, eds., Music and Racial Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 5; Hamilton, Jack, Just around Midnight: Rock and Roll and the Racial Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 3–8Google Scholar; Stephens, Randall J., The Devil's Music: How Christians Inspired, Condemned, and Embraced Rock and Roll (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 16–19Google Scholar, 65–101; Michael Omi and Howard Winant, eds., Racial Formation in the United States, 3rd edn (New York: Routledge, 2014), 1–18.

75 Ralph J. Gleason, “Stop This Shuck, Mike Bloomfield,” Rolling Stone, 11 May 1968, 10. Hamilton, 221–22, criticizes Gleason's understanding of race and musical genres.

76 Amiri Baraka, “The Changing Same (R & B and New Black Music),” in Jones, Black Music (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1967), 205–6 (the essay is dated 1966; see ibid., 180); Jones, Blues People: The Negro Experience in White America and the Music That Developed From It (New York: Morrow Quill, 1963), ix–x; Joans, Ted, “There Are Those,” in Joans, Black Pow-Wow: Jazz Poems (New York: Hill and Wang, 1969), 58Google Scholar; Sanneh, Kelefa, Major Labels: A History of Popular Music in Seven Genres (New York: Penguin, 2021), 410–15Google Scholar.

77 Hamilton, 3–8; Burke, Patrick, Tear Down the Walls: White Radicalism and Black Power in 1960s Rock (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2021), 13CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the “urgent need for rock lit and Black studies to ‘speak’ to each other” see Brooks, Daphne A., Liner Notes for the Revolution: The Intellectual Life of Black Feminist Sound (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2021), 35Google Scholar.

78 Sam Silver, “Monterey Pop Festival,” East Village Other, 2, 16 (15 July 1967), 8; Chester Anderson, “Notes for the New Geology,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 6 (Feb. 1967), 2; Ralph J. Gleason, “A Power to Change the World,” Rolling Stone, 22 June 1968, 10; Bromell, Nick, Tomorrow Never Knows: Rock and Psychedelics in the 1960s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 48–57Google Scholar.

79 Guralnick, Peter, Sweet Soul Music: Rhythm and Blues and the Southern Dream of Freedom (New York: Harper & Row, 1986)Google Scholar; Garland, Phyl, The Sound of Soul (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1969)Google Scholar; Guillory, Monique and Green, Richard, Soul: Black Power, Politics, and Pleasure (New York: New York University Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

80 Lordi, Emily J., The Meaning of Soul: Black Music and Resilience since the 1960s (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2020), 1–18Google Scholar, esp. 5; Lordi, “Everybody Is a Star,” New York Times Style Magazine, 10 Feb. 2022, 116–20. Published online as “The Radical Experimentation of Black Psychedelia,” at www.nytimes.com/2022/02/10/t-magazine/black-psychedelia.html. For a perceptive reading of the multiple meanings of a song see Kurlansky, Mark, Ready for a Brand New Beat: How “Dancing in the Street” Became the Anthem for a Changing America (New York: Riverhead Books, 2013)Google Scholar.

81 Lordi, The Meaning of Soul, 62–66.

82 Love, “A House Is Not a Motel,” Forever Changes, Elektra EKS-74013, 1967, LP.

83 Chambers Brothers, The Time Has Come, Columbia, CS 9522, 1967, LP; Chambers Brothers, “Time Has Come Today,” Columbia 44414, 1968, 7-inch single.

84 Ray Charles, “Let's Go Get Stoned,” ABC-Paramount 10808, 1966, 7-inch single; Isley Brothers, “It's Your Thing,” T-Neck Records, TN 901, 1969, 7-inch single; Isley Brothers, “I Turned You On,” T-Neck TN 902, 1969, 7-inch single.

85 The Temptations, “Cloud Nine,” Gordy G 7081, 1968, 7-inch single; the Temptations, Cloud Nine, Gordy (Motown), GS939, 1969, LP; the Temptations, “Psychedelic Shack,” Gordy G 7096, 1969, 7-inch single. The Supremes recorded their last hit for Motown in 1970 with “Stoned Love,” which espoused the hope that love could bring world peace. The Supremes, “Stoned Love,” Motown M 1172, 1970, 7-inch single.

86 Michael Hann, “‘It Was Tribal and Sexual’: Alice Cooper on the Debauchery of Detroit Rock,” The Guardian, 26 Feb. 2021, at www.theguardian.com/music/2021/feb/26/alice-cooper-detroit-rock.

87 John Sinclair, “Rock and Roll Is a Weapon of Cultural Revolution,” in Sinclair, Guitar Army: Street Writings/Prison Writings (New York: Douglas Book Corp., 1972), 113–19; Sinclair, “The White Panther State/meant,” in ibid., 103–5; originally published in Fifth Estate, 14 Nov. 1968, and in the East Village Other, 3, 5 (15 Nov. 1968), 11; John Sinclair and D. A. Latimer, “White Panther Party,” East Village Other, 4, 26 (28 May 1969), 3; Jeff A. Hale, “The White Panthers’ ‘Total Assault on the Culture’,” in Braunstein and Doyle, Imagine Nation, 125–56; Burke, Tear Down the Walls, 92–117. In 1971 Sinclair jettisoned the White Panther moniker and renamed the organization the Rainbow People's Party. John Sinclair et al., “Let It Grow,” in Sinclair, Guitar Army, 325–26; originally published as a “Statement of the Central Committee, Rainbow People's Party, Ann Arbor Sun, 1 May 1971.

88 “It Was Like Balling for the First Time,” Rolling Stone, 10 Sept. 1969, 1; Greil Marcus, “The Woodstock Festival,” Rolling Stone, 10 Sept. 1969, 16.

89 Reed, “Rise and Fall of a Mini-renaissance.” On Woodstock see Moretta, Hippies, 285–302.

90 “We Are One …,” East Village Other, 4, 38 (20 Aug. 1969), 1; Jaakov Kohn, “Hirap,” East Village Other, 4, 38 (20 Aug. 1969), 2; John Hilgerdt, “That Aquarian Exposition, East Village Other, 4, 38 (20 Aug. 1969), 7–9.

91 The Jimi Hendrix Experience, “If 6 was 9,” on the Jimi Hendrix Experience, Axis: Bold as Love, Reprise 0853, 1970.

92 Robert Christgau, “Anatomy of a Love Festival,” Esquire, Jan. 1968, at www.robertchristgau.com/xg/bk-aow/festival.php. On Hendrix's image see Lauren Onkey, “Voodoo Child: Jimi Hendrx and the Politics of Race in the Sixties,” in Braunstein and Doyle, Imagine Nation, 189–214.

93 Jimi Hendrix, “Star Spangled Banner,” Woodstock: Music from the Original Soundtrack and More, Atlantic SD 500-2, 1970, LP.

94 Barbara Campbell, “Sly Stone Is Together,” New York Times, 1 Feb. 1970, D67. See also Ben Fong-Torres, “Everybody Is a Star: The Travels of Sylvester Stewart,” Rolling Stone, 19 March 1970, 28 ff.; Sly & the Family Stone, “Hot Fun in the Summertime,” Epic 5-10497, 1969, 7-inch single.

95 Sly & the Family Stone, “Everyday People,” Epic 5-10407, 1968, 7-inch single.

96 The Harlem Cultural Festival was held from 1967 to 1969. The 1969 festival was a series of six concerts held in Mount Morris Park. Raymond Robinson, “Festival Draws over 50,000,” Amsterdam News, 2 Aug. 1969, 1, 43. The 1969 Harlem Festival is documented in Summer of Soul, dir. Ahmir “Questlove” Thompson, Searchlight Pictures, 2021.

97 Mike Jahn, “Rock Audience Moves to Dusk-to-Dawn Rhythms,” New York Times, 18 Aug. 1969, 25.

98 Vincent, Rickey, Party Music: The Inside Story of the Black Panthers’ Band and How Black Power Transformed Soul Music (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2013)Google Scholar.

99 Sly & the Family Stone, Stand!, Epic 26456, 1969, LP.

100 Sly & the Family Stone, There's a Riot Goin’ On, Epic KE 30986, 1971, LP. Jeff Kaliss, I Want to Take You Higher: The Life and Times of Sly & the Family Stone (Milwaukee: Back Beat Books, 2008).

101 Clayton Riley, “Sly in the Sky,” Amsterdam News, 18 Dec. 1971, D1, D4.

102 Imamu Amiri Baraka, “The Ban on Black Music,” Black World, July 1971, 9–10. Some ardent proponents of rock, including John Sinclair, also urged his readers to listen to contemporary jazz. See John Sinclair, “Fire Music,” San Francisco Oracle, 1, 3 (Nov. 1966), 14; Sinclair, “Backdrop to Urban Revolution: Some New Black Music,” in Sinclair, Guitar Army, 127–30; originally published in Fifth Estate, 5 Feb. 1969.

103 Miles Davis, with Troupe, Quincey, Miles: The Autobiography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), 320–22Google Scholar.

104 Bugliosi, Vincent, Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974)Google Scholar.

105 Jerry Hopkins, “Kiss Kiss Flutter Flutter Thank You,” Rolling Stone, 13 Dec. 1969, 1; Ralph J. Gleason, “Are We Lost in a New Dark Age?”, Rolling Stone, 13 Dec. 1969, 21; “Let It Bleed,” Rolling Stone, 31 Jan. 1970, 18–36; “A Murderous Thing,” Berkeley Barb, 12 Dec. 1969, 2; Gimme Shelter, dir. Albert Maysles, David Maysles, and Charlotte Zwerin, Maysles Films, 1970.

106 The Temptations, “Ball of Confusion,” Gordy G 7099, 1970, 7-inch single. Mark Anthony Neal dates the beginning of a “post-soul” era to the 1970s, but Emily Lordi contends that soul remained a vital source of aesthetic and political inspiration for musicians and listeners. Neal, Soul Babies, 2–3; Lordi, Meaning of Soul, esp. 16–18, 150–56.

107 Tom Wolfe, “The ‘Me’ Decade and the Third Great Awakening,” New York Magazine, 26 Aug. 1976, 26–40; Lasch, Christopher, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979)Google Scholar; Frank, Thomas, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.