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Death and Transfiguration: Liu Shaoqi's Rehabilitation and Contemporary Chinese Politics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2011

Lowell Dittmer
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Abstract

Liu Shaoqi, the highest-ranking Chinese Communist leader to fall victim to China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was posthumously rehabilitated in spring 1980. His rehabilitation was accompanied by the publication of new materials on his life and career, enabling us to fill in various lacunae and to attempt a more comprehensive assessment of his political import. If the vindication is successful among China's still somewhat skeptical masses, Liu may come to serve as a popular symbol of the folly of spontaneous mass participation in politics and the essential continuity of China's Marxist-Leninist tradition from the 1950s to the 1980s. To China's officialdom, Liu will represent the ultimate integrity of the Party apparatus, an avatar of the self-cultivated rectitude of the “clean official.”

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Articles
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The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 40 , Issue 3 , May 1981 , pp. 455 - 479
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1981

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References

1 The official media of the People's Republic of China (PRC) (People's Daily, Red Flag. Guangming Ribao, the revived Wen Hui Bao, etc.) I have taken to be definitive on matters of fact in this study. Of the Hong Kong publications, Ming Pao Yueh Kan and Qishi Niandai seem to be most reliable. Zheng Ming, Dongxiang, and Guang Jiao Jing I have found for the most part to be accurate, although they do report hearsay and even rumor of uncertain reliparticularly ability. Thus I have attempted to corroborate their claims against other sources whenever possible.

2 Shengsan, Cao, “Mao Liu jiaxiang zhuan fang tuo” (A visit to the hometowns of Mao and Liu), Zheng Ming, April 1980, no. 30, pp. 22–26Google Scholar.

3 Zhenying, Wu and Zhengde, Liu, “Gensui Shaoqi tongzhi shijiu nian—jiyao mishu huiyi” (Following Comrade Shaoqi for nineteen years—the recollections of his confidential secretaries), in Hongqi piaopiao, vol. 20 (Beijing: China Youth, 1980), pp. 164–224Google Scholar (hereafter cited as HQPP; all citations refer to vol. 20).

4 Luther, Jörg-Michael, Liu Shao-qi's umstrittenes Konzept zur Erziehung von Parteimitgliedern (Liu Shaoqi's Controversial Concept of the Cultivation of Party Members) (Hamburg: Institut für Asienkunde, Mitteilung nr. 100, 1978.)Google Scholar

5 Xin, Chen (interviewing Cao Shengsan) “Liu Shaoqi jiaxiang jian ting” (What I heard and saw in Liu Shaoqi's hometown), Dongxiang, March 1980, no. 18, pp. 14–17Google Scholar.

6 See Kuo-t'ao's, Chang introduction to the Collected Works of Liu Shao-ch'i, 3 vols. (Hong Kong: Union Research Inst., 1968)Google Scholar.

7 Shangkun, Yang, “Huiyi Liu Shaoqi tongzhi” (In memory of comrade Liu Shaoqi), Hongqi (Red Flag), April 16, 1980, pp. 2–9 (hereafter cited as RF).Google Scholar

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9 See n. 3.

10 Hsing-tao jih-pao, Hong Kong, Dec. 5, 1969Google Scholar; Rene Flipo, Agence France Presse (Hong Kong), Feb. 4, 1975, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate General), Feb. 4, 1975, p. El (hereafter cited as FBIS). George Biannic, AFP, Oct. 22, 1978, in FBIS, Oct. 23, 1978, p. E2, issued perhaps the last report (based on “a reliable source in Peking”) maintaining that Liu was still alive.

11 Miao, Yang, “Zhonggong ping Mao zai qing qing ji ji” (The quietly deepening criticism of Mao), Zheng Ming, Jan. 1981, no. 39, pp. 38–40Google Scholar.

12 Zhikun, Guo and Wenhai, Gao, “The Good Thing is that History is Written by the People: Wang Guangmei Talks about Comrade Liu Shaoqi,” Wen Hui Bao, Shanghai, March 8, 1980, p. 2Google Scholar, as trans, in FBIS, March 28, 1980, pp. L6–L13.

13 See Wenyuan, Shou, “Yiding yao zuo renmin ti hao erzi” [We must be the good children of the people] (The recollections of Liu Pingping, Liu Yuanyuan, and Liu Tingting), Zhongguo Qingnian (Chinese Youth) 4 (1980): 4–10Google Scholar. During one of the Tiananmen reviews of Red Guards in fall 1966, Liu spoke to Mao when he passed before him: “The Cultural Revolution has now begun. I also want to go and practice among the masses.” But Mao replied: “You are old now, don't go” (Ni nianji dale, jiu buyao qule). Geng Dezhang, “Ta xinzhong zhi yu renmin—yiwu renyuan di huiyi” (Only the people are in his heart—the recollection of the medical personnel), in HQPP, pp. 246–50.

14 The case against her became so notorious that an aspiring author even used the background material to write a popular spy story, “Plum Biossom Clique” (Meihua dang), which was later compiled into a booklet of underground literature entitled “A Pair of Embroidered Shoes.” Later, this booklet was denounced as pornographic, and newsthe author pursued by authorities. Peng, Liu, “Wang Guangmei hai zai yu zhong” (Wang Guangmei is instill in prison), Zheng Ming, Jan. 1979. no. 15, pp. 38–40Google Scholar.

15 Ibid.

16 Xinhua News Agency, March 12, 1980, in FBIS, March 22, 1980, p. LI.

17 Wenyuan, Shou, “Yiding yao,” pp. 4–10; also see the poem, “Zhong gui qu—xiangxin Liu Shaoqi tongzhi” (Song of the loyal spirit—remember comrade Liu Shaoqi), in Renmin Wenxue (People's literature), 1980, no. 3Google Scholar; and Ying, Liu, “You guan Liu Shaoqi huida duzhe” (Response to readers' questions about Liu Shaoqi), Zheng Ming, May 1, 1980, no. 31, pp. 18–19Google Scholar.

18 According to visitors and contemporary news paper accounts, China was “pervaded by a war atmosphere” during summer and fall 1969, instill volving extensive troop movements as well as population evacuations to counter the perceived Soviet threat. Tokyo Shimbun, Feb. 5, 1970, p. 8, in FBIS, Feb. 9, 1970, pp. B1–B3; Asahi Shimbun, April 22, 1970, p. 1, in FBIS, April 22, 1970, pp. B1–B2; China News Analysis (Taipei), Feb. 23, 1970, in FBIS, Feb. 25, 1970, p. Bl.

19 Seen. 17.

20 Ying, Liu, “Liu Shaoqi cang si Kaifeng qianhou” (Before and after Liu Shaoqi bitterly dies in Kaifeng), Zheng Ming, April 1980, no. 30, pp. 16–20Google Scholar.

21 Henan Shida Xuebao (Journal of the Honan Normal University), reprinted in Huainian Liu Shaoqi tongzhi ziliao zhuanji (Special collection of materials commemorating comrade Liu Shaoqi) (Beijing: Chinese People's University, 1980), pp. 2–4Google Scholar (hereafter cited as Special Collection).

22 The children were hence permitted to visit Wang a total of five times between 1972 and her release in late 1978. Bing, Luo, “Zhonggong gaoceng nei liang an mang” (The CCP supreme leadership is busy with two cases), Zheng Ming, Feb. 1980, no. 28, pp. 5–7Google Scholar.

23 Ying, Liu, “You guan Liu Shaoqi wenti huida duzhe,” Zheng Ming, May 1, 1980, no. 31, pp. 18–19Google Scholar; see also n. 20; and Yang, Chen, “Liu Shaoqi guhui zai Zhengzhou di yingsong yishi” (The transmission ceremony of Liu Shaoqi's ashes in Zhengzhou), Ming Pao Yueh Kan (Ming Pao Monthly), July 1980, no. 175, pp. 26–28Google Scholar.

24 Ying, Liu, “Shaoqi tongzhi jiao zier” (How comrade Shaoqi taught his son), in HQPP, pp. 127–38Google Scholar; Aiqing, Liu, “Nüer ti huainian” (Daughter's reminiscences), Jiefangjün bao (Liberation army daily), April 27, 1980, p. 4Google Scholar; reprinted in Special Collection.

25 Liu Ying, “You guan Liu Shaoqi,” pp. 18–19; Bing, Cuo, “Zemma zuo panduan Liu Shaoqi” (How should we judge Liu Shaoqi), Zheng Ming, Nov. 1978, no. 13, pp. 20–21Google Scholar.

26 “Liu Shaoqi tongzhi dui haizi zhi rende” (Liu Shaoqi's virtuous love for his children), Ceming Wemvu (Revolutionary personages) (Beijing), May 30, 1980, no. 3, pp. 8–11.

27 Ni, Ru, “Liu Shaoqi zhi zi shang daxue” (Liu Shaoqi's children go to college), Zheng Ming, Sept. 1978, no. 11, p. 13Google Scholar.

28 The Writing Group of Yinggou Municipal CCP Committee, Liaoning, , “The Aim of Socialist Revolution Is to Emancipate Productive Forces,” Guangming Ribao, May 17, 1971, p. 2Google Scholar; and Zhi Zhengwen, “Class Struggle Is the Direct Motive Power Behind the Development of History,” loc. cit., May 10, 1971, p. 3.

29 Xuejiang, An, “Rely on the Masses to Carry Out an Open-Door Party Consolidation Campaign,” Renmin Ribao, Oct. 12, 1969, in FBIS, Oct. 14, 1969, pp. B5–9Google Scholar; see also Gao Jinwen, “What is So Good about a Good Old Man?” loc. cit., Jan. 27, 1970, in FBIS, Jan. 29, 1970, pp. B3–6.

30 Revolutionary Criticism Writing Group of the Electronics Industry, “A Criticism of the Theory of Making the Electronics Industry the Center,” Renmin Ribao, Aug. 12, 1971, in FBIS, Aug. 18, 1971, pp. B8–13Google Scholar.

31 Yushan, Gou, “Wipe Out the Remnant Poison and Do Better in Composition,” Guangming Ribao, Aug. 30, 1972, p. 2Google Scholar.

32 Yansheng, Jing, “Workers, Peasants and Soldiers Are Masters of Literature and Art,” Renmin Ribao, May 16, 1972, p. 4Google Scholar.

33 Agence France Presse (Hong Kong), Dec. 4, 1978, in FBIS, Dec. 5, 1978, p. E1.

34 Xin Wan Bao (Hong Kong), Dec. 12, 1978, p. 1.

35 David Lan, Agence France Presse, Jan. 10, 1979, in FBIS, Jan. 10, 1979, p. El.

36 Agence France Presse, Jan. 28, 1979, in FBIS, Jan. 29, 1979, p. E15; see also fn. 34.

37 Peng, Liu, “Wang Guangmei chu yu zhi hou” (After Wang Guangmei was released from prison), Zheng Ming. March 1979, no. 17, pp. 18–19Google Scholar.

38 Agence France Presse (Hong Kong), Jan. 23, 1980, in FBIS, Jan. 30, 1980. p. L1.

39 Cf. Dittmer, Lowell, “China in 1980: Modernization and Its Discontents,” Asian Survey 21, 1 (1981): 31–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Wen Hui Bao (Hong Kong), Aug. 31, 1979.

41 Bing, Luo, “Zhonggong gaoceng nei liang an mang” (The CCP supreme leadership is busy with two cases), Zheng Ming, Feb. 1980, no. 28, pp. 5–7Google Scholar.

42 Ibid.

43 Tianzhang, Song, “Lun Liu Shaoqi” (On Liu Shaoqi), Guang Jiao Jing (Wide Angle) March 16, 1980, no. 90, pp. 32–41Google Scholar.

44 Ying, Liu, “Liu Shaoqi zhuidao hui qianhou” (Before and after the Liu Shaoqi memorial meeting), Zheng Ming, June 1980, no. 32, pp. 1–11Google Scholar.

45 Xinhua News Agency, March 12, 1980, in FBIS, March 22, 1980, p. LI.

46 Luo Bing, “Zhonggong gaoceng,” pp. 5–7; Xinhua (Beijing), June 4, 1980, in FBIS. June 5, 1980, p. L6.

47 Xinhua (Beijing), April 22, 1980, in FBIS. April 23, 1980, pp. L2–3.

48 Beijing Ribao, March 4, 1980, p. 1, in FBIS, March 4, 1980, p. L3; Xinhua (Beijing), April 5, 1980, in FBIS, April 7, 1980, p. LI.

49 Xinhua (Beijing), May 21, 1980, in FBIS, May 21, 1980, pp. Ll–2.

50 Beijing Ribao, March 1, 1980, in FBIS, March 3, 1980, pp. L5–6.

51 Shengsan, Cao, “Mao, Liu jiaxiang zhuan fang tuo” (A visit to the hometowns of Mao and Liu), Zheng Ming, April 1980, no. 30, pp. 22–26Google Scholar. Cao noted several changes at Shaoshan during his visit: all pictures concerning the Cultural Revolutior were removed from the exhibition hall, and most quotations from Mao around the field and beside the road had disappeared, for example.

52 Dittmer, Lowell, Liu Shao-ch'i and the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Politics of Mass Criticism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), pp. 214–97Google Scholar.

53 Zhongjian, Lu, “Liu Shaoqi wenti taolun” (A rediscussion of the Liu Shaoqi question), Zheng Ming, March 1979, no. 17, pp. 9–14Google Scholar.

54 Ibid.

55 On June 30, 1927, Chen Duxiu, in his “Decision Concerning the Relations Between the CCP and the KMT,” wrote that: “There are armed pickets in Wuhan, but in order to avoid political conflict and misunderstanding, we can either rediscussion duce the number of pickets or form them into the army (the KMT army).” Quoted in Lu Zhongjian, ibid.

56 Yongqian, Meng, “Shaoqi tongzhi zai Fengtian beibu qianhou” (Before and after Comrade Shaoqi was arrested in Fengtian), in HQPP, pp. 54–65Google Scholar.

57 Na, Guan, “Da panru, hai lao ganbu” (Big traitots or old cadres), Zheng Ming, Dec. 1978, no. 14, pp. 10–13Google Scholar.

58 Xulu, Chen, “The Question of Patriotism vs. National Betrayal in China's Modern History,” Guangming Ribao, Jan. 8, 1980, p. 4Google Scholar; at this still early stage in the rehabilitation, Liu's name was not mentioned.

59 Yuzhou, Zhou, “The ‘Adviser's’ Three False Charges,” Renmin Ribao, March 27, 1980, p. 5Google Scholar; in FBIS, April 2, 1980, pp. L6–7.

60 Liu once asked his physician what he thought of the Cultural Revolution, receiving this reply: “I don't understand why we should kick away the Party committee to do revolution. Doesn't that mean we don't need the Party?” Liu was silent for several minutes, then said: “Think it over for yourself (ziji kaolu kaolu ba). Dezhang, Geng, “Ta xinzhong zhi yu renmin,” HQPP, p. 247Google Scholar.

61 Commentator, “The Distinction between Marxism and Revisionism Should Not Be Blurred,” Renmin Ribao, April 3, 1980, in FBIS, April 4, 1980, pp. LI–7Google Scholar.

62 See n. 7.

63 Song Tianzhang, “LunLiu Shaoqi,” pp. 32–41.

64 Cf. Liu Ying, “Liu Shaoqi zhuidao hui,” pp. 10–11.

65 According to an Anyuan colleague, Liu's ability to take into consideration the interests of capital as well as labor was responsible for the fact that the Anyuan Union survived while most other unions were suppressed. Xiao Jingguang, “Yi zaoqi hu sulian,” HQPP, pp. 1–10.

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67 Theoretical Research Office of the Propaganda Department of Tianjin Municipal CCP Committee, “Reread Comrade Liu Shaoqi's ‘Speeches in Tianjin,’” Renmin Ribao, April 21, 1980, p. 5; the verbatim transcript of one of the speeches is available in Liu Shaoqi wenti ziliao zhuanji (A special collection of materials on Liu Shaoqi) (Taiwan): Chinese Communist Study Center, 1970), pp. 200–207Google Scholar.

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70 See n. 7.

71 See n. 43.

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73 Wen, Jin, “Weapons for Combating the Leftist Line in Inner-Party Struggle: Re-Reading ‘How to Be a Good Communist,’” Guangming Ribao, April 11, 1980, p. 3Google Scholar.

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76 Shi, Lu, “‘Mao ji’ wu zhuan yingdang chong cha chong bian” (The fifth volume of Mao's Works should be reexamined and reedited), Zheng Ming, Oct. 1979, no. 24, pp. 16–17Google Scholar.

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78 Xinhua (Beijing), March 12, 1980, in FBIS, March 22, 1980, p. LI.