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³ On the oil boom era, see Williams, Gavin and Turner, Terisa, ‘Nigeria’, in Dunn, John (ed.), West African States: failure and promise. A Study in Comparative Politics (Cambridge, 1978), pp. 132–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Rimmer, Douglas, ‘Development in Nigeria: an overview’, in Bienen, Henry and Diejomaoh, V. P. (eds.), The Political Economy of Income Distribution in Nigeria (New York, 1981), pp. 19–87.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ Central Bank of Nigeria, Economic Policy Reforms in Nigeria: a study report (Lagos, 1993), p. 19.Google Scholar

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¹⁷ Biersteker, op. cit. p. 18.

¹⁸ In 1989, a two-tiered pricing structure was introduced as a means of phasing-in a price increase on fuels.

¹⁹ Lewis, Peter M., ‘Economic Statism, Private Capital, and the Dilemmas of Accumulation in Nigeria’, in World Development (Oxford), 22, 3, 03 1994, p. 445.Google Scholar

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²¹ Ibrahim, Jibrin, ‘The Transition to Civilian Rule: sapping democracy’, in Olukoshi, Adebayo O. (ed.), The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria (London, 1993), p. 133.Google Scholar

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²⁴ Analyses in this vein can be found in Putnam, Robert D., ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: the logic of two-level games’, in International Organization (Cambridge, MA), 42, 3, Summer 1988, pp. 426–60; Callaghy, loc. cit.;Google Scholar and Lehman, Howard P., Indebted Development: strategic bargaining and economic adjustment in the Third World (Basingstoke and New York, 1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁵ This is evident from several case-studies in Nelson (ed.), op. cit.

²⁶ Callaghy, loc. cit. pp. 306–7.

²⁷ Ihonvbere, Julius O., ‘Economic Crisis, Structural Adjustment and Social Crisis in Nigeria’, in World Development, 21, 1, 1993, p. 146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁸ See Yusuf Bangura and Bjorn Beckman, ‘African Workers and Structural Adjustment: a Nigerian case-study’, and Attahiru Jega, ‘Professional Associations and Structural Adjustment’, in Olukoshi (ed.), op. cit. pp. 75–96 and 97–111, respectively.

²⁹ See Jega, loc. cit.

³⁰ Lewis, ‘Economic Statism’, p. 445.

³¹ Abdul Raufu Mustapha, ‘Structural Adjustment and Agrarian Change in Nigeria’, in Olukoshi (ed.), op. cit. pp. 121–2.

³² Ojo, M. O., ‘A Review and Appraisal of Nigeria's Experience with Financial Sector Reform’, Central Bank of Nigeria, Research Department Occasional Paper No. 8, 1993, p. 10.Google Scholar

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³⁶ See Julius, O. Ihonvbere, ‘A Critical Evaluation of the Failed 1990 Coup in Nigeria’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, 29, 4, 12 1991, pp. 601–26.Google Scholar

³⁷ Ibid. and Forrest, op. cit. p. 246.

³⁸ Business Times (Lagos), 17 10 1994.Google Scholar

³⁹ Forrest, op. cit. p. 247.

⁴⁰ Central Bank of Nigeria, op. cit. p. 36.

⁴¹ World Bank, op. cit. p. 36.

⁴² Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report and Statement of Accounts, 1994 (Lagos, 1995), p. 1.Google Scholar

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⁴⁶ Economist Intelligence Unit, Nigeria Country Report (London), 1, 1993, p. 4.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Interestingly, the Government serviced its debt to the World Bank and its obligations to holders of par bonds. An implicit distinction was made between the ‘lenders of last resort’ and creditors regarded as dispensable.

⁴⁸ Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report, 1992, p. 70.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report, 1994, p. 70.Google Scholar

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⁵³ Pareto defined ‘spoilation’ as personal gain at the expense of general welfare. According to Levi, Margaret, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley, 1988), p. 3, fn, this represents a corrosive form of resource extraction by rulers.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See Clapham, Christopher, Third World Politics: an introduction (London, 1985).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁰ Weber, op. cit. pp. 231–2.

⁶¹ Linz, Juan J., ‘Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes’, in Greenstein, Fred and Polsby, Nelson (eds.), Handbook of Political Science, Vol. 3, Macropolitical Theory (Menlo Park, 1975), p. 259. Linz adopts Weber's usage of ‘sultanism’, which I have modified.Google Scholar

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⁶³ Africa Confidential (London), 3 12 1993, p. 5.Google Scholar

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⁶⁵ See Rimmer, loc. cit., Joseph, op. cit., and Forrest, op. cit. passim.