Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-14T09:48:17.626Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Payment by Results in Nineteenth-Century British Education: A Study in How Priorities Change

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2016

Henry Midgley*
Affiliation:
London, UK

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Donald Critchlow and Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I am very grateful to the comments of the anonymous reviewers, Dr. Thomas Packer, Matthew Sinclair, and Alex Scharaschkin on this article. The flaws in it are my own. The article reflects my own views and not the views of any institution to which I am attached.

References

NOTES

1. Heikkila, T. and Gerlak, A. K., “Building a conceptual approach to collective learning: lessons for public policy scholars,” Political Studies Journal 41, no. 3 (2013): 484512.Google Scholar

2. Jones, B. D. and Baumgartner, F. R., “A model of choice for public policy,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 15, no. 5 (2006): 350.Google Scholar

3. Ostrander, I. and Lowry, W. R., “Oil crises and policy continuity: a history of failure to change,” Journal of Policy History 24, no. 3 (2012): 384404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4. Marsham, A. J., “The revised code of education: reinterpretations and misinterpretations,” History of Education 10, no. 2 (1981): 8199,Google Scholar Jabbar, H., “The case of ‘payment by results’: reexamining the effects of an incentive programme in nineteenth century British schools,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 45, no. 3 (2013): 220–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5. Sutherland, G., Policy making in elementary education, 1870–1895 (Oxford, 1973), 282.Google Scholar

6. Ibid., 245.

7. Pierson, P., “The study of policy developments,” Journal of Policy History 17, no. 1 (2004): 34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8. Kuhn, T., The structure of scientific revolutions (Chicago, 2012 [1962]), 10.Google Scholar

9. Skinner, Q. R. D., “Meaning and understanding in the history of ideas,” History and Theory 8, no. 1 (1969): 353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10. Hall, P., “Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy making in Britain,” Comparative Politics 25, no. 3 (1993): 279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11. Mahoney, J. and Thelen, K., “A theory of gradual institutional change,” in Explaining institutional change: ambiguity, agency, and power, ed. Mahoney, J. and Thelen, K. (Cambridge, 2010), 19.Google Scholar

12. Richardson, J., “Government, interest groups, and policy change,” Political Studies 48 (2000): 1021.Google Scholar

13. Berman, S., “Ideational theorizing in the social sciences since ‘Policy paradigms, social learning and the state,’” Governance: an international journal of policy, administration and institutions 26, no. 2 (2013): 231–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14. Anderson, E., “Ideas in action: the politics of Prussian child labor reform 1817–39,” Theory of Society 42 (2013): 110.Google Scholar

15. Pierson, P., “Power and path dependency,” in Advances in comparative historical analysis, ed. Mahoney, J. and Thelen, K. (Cambridge, 2015), 133.Google Scholar

16. J. E. Dunford, Her majesty’s inspectorate of schools in England and Wales (M.Ed. Thesis, 1976), Durham Theses, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9794, 1; Stephens, W. B., Education in Britain, 1750–1914 (New York, 1998), 7.Google Scholar

17. Aldrich, R. E., “Radicalism, national education, and the grant of 1833,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 5, no. 1 (1973): 17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. N. Morris, “Public expenditure on education in the 1860s,” Oxford Review of Education 3, no. 1: 3–19.

19. Sir J. K. Shuttleworth, Memorandum on the present state of the question of popular education (London: Woburn Books, 1867), 8; West, E. G., “Education without the state,” Economic Affairs 14, no. 5 (1994): 1215Google Scholar; Tooley, J., E. G. West: economic liberalism and the role of government in education (London, 2014), 80.Google Scholar

20. Hoppen, K. T., The Mid-Victorian generation, 1846–86 (Oxford 1998), 9798.Google Scholar

21. Marsham, A. J., “The revised code of education: reinterpretations and misinterpretations,” History of Education 10, no. 2 (1981): 99.Google Scholar

22. Sylvester, D. W., Robert Lowe and education (Cambridge, 1974), 45Google Scholar; P. W. Evans, “The contribution of Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland 1847–1926 to the education system of England and Wales” (Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, 1989), 202.

23. Martin, A. Patchett, Life and Letters of the Right Honourable Robert Lowe Viscount Sherbrooke GCB DCL with a memoir of Sir John Coape Sherbrooke GCB sometime Governor General of Canada, Vol II (London, 1893), 215Google Scholar; Marsham, A. J., “Recent interpretations of the revised code of education,” History of Education 8, no. 2 (1979): 130, Marsham, “The revised code of education,” 88–89.Google Scholar

24. Hilton, B., A mad bad and dangerous people: England, 1783–1846 (Oxford, 2006)Google Scholar; Daunton, M., Trusting Leviathan: the politics of taxation in Britain (Cambridge, 2007)Google Scholar.

25. Jenkins, R., Gladstone (London, 1995), 215Google Scholar.

26. Hoppen, The Mid-Victorian generation, 120; Daunton, M. J., State and market in Victorian England: war, welfare, and capitalism (Woodbridge, 2008), 6971.Google Scholar

27. Hansard, 13 February 1862, col. 229; 21 February 1862, col. 597; Morris, I., The politics of English elementary school finance, Studies in British History, vol. 72 (New York, 2003), 8081.Google Scholar

28. Stephens, Education in Britain, 7.

29. Report of the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of popular education in England, vol. 1 (London, 1861), 244, 273.

30. First report of the Royal Commission into the working of the Elementary Education acts England and Wales (London, 1886), 2.

31. Report of the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of popular education, 225.

32. Hansard HC Deb, 11 June 1855, vol. 138, col. 180–81; HC Deb, 6 March 1856, vol. 140, col. 195–97; Sylvester, D. W., Robert Lowe and Education (Cambridge, 1974), 42.Google Scholar

33. Hansard HC Deb, 13 February 1862, col. 199.

34. Stephens, Education in Britain, 7.

35. Sylvester, Robert Lowe and Education, 118–19.

36. J. Maloney, “Education, education, and administration,” in The political economy of Robert Lowe, ed. Maloney (Basingstoke, 2005), 39.

37. Ibid., 47.

38. Mercer, M., Schooling the poorer child: elementary education in Sheffield, 1562–1906 (Sheffield, 1996).Google Scholar

39. Hansard HC Deb, 13 February 1862, col. 213.

40. Spiers, E. M., The late Victorian Army, 1868–1902 (Manchester, 1998 [1992]), 129Google Scholar; Greenaway, J., “Celebrating Northcote-Trevelyan: dispelling the myths,” Public Policy and Administration 19, no. 1 (2004): 114.Google Scholar

41. Hansard HC Deb, 13 February 1862, col. 212–13.

42. Jabbar, “The case of ‘payment by results,’” 223.

43. Report of the commissioners, 328; Report of the committee of council on education 1860–1 (London, 1861), 103; Sylvester, Robert Lowe and Education, 50–56.

44. W. Nassau Senior, Address on education delivered to the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (London: T Fellowes, 1863), 19; Chadwick, E., National elementary education: an address (London: R. J. Bush, 1868)Google Scholar.

45. F. Bastiat, “That which is seen and that which is not seen” (1850), http://bastiat.org/en/twisatwins.html (accessed 9/8/2015).

46. Maloney, “Education, education, and administration,” 39.

47. Hansard HC Deb, 25 March 1862, vol. 166, col. 106.

48. Hansard HC Deb, 13 February 1862, col. 203.

49. Hansard HL Deb, 4 March 1862, vol. 165, col. 1009.

50. T. Wilson, “A reinterpretation of payment by results in Scotland,” in Scottish culture and education, 1800–1980, ed. Humes and Patterson (Edinburgh, 1983), 110.

51. Hansard HC Deb, 27 March 1862, vol. 166, col. 187.

52. Grant, A. R., Remarks on the revised code (Cambridge, 1862), 16.Google Scholar

53. Maloney, “Education, education, and administration,” 38–39; Jabbar, “The case of payment by results,” 226.

54. Hansard HC Deb, 19 July 1872, vol. 212, col. 1470.

55. Lowe, R., Speeches and letters on reform with a preface (London: R. J. Bush, 1867), 139.Google Scholar

56. Hansard HC Deb, 13 February 1862, vol. 165, col. 211.

57. Ibid.

58. Sylvester, Robert Lowe and Education, 64.

59. First report of the Royal Commission into the working of the Elementary Education Acts, England and Wales (London, 1886), 3–4.

60. Morris, Politics of English elementary school finance, 94–101.

61. Lowe, R., Primary and classical education: an address before the Philosophical Institution of Edinburgh on Friday November 1st 1867 (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1867), 11.Google Scholar

62. Dunford, Her majesty’s inspectorate of schools, 71.

63. Fitch, J. G., “Educational results and the mode of testing them,” in Papers and Discussions on Education, ed. Faithful, E. (London: Emily Faithful, 1862), 31.Google Scholar

64. Reports from Committees Education (2) Vol. VI Session 7 February–6 July 1865 (London, 1865), 397.

65. Kerr, J., Memoirs grave and gay: forty years of school inspection (London, 1902), 30.Google Scholar

66. D. Mitch, Did high stakes testing policies result in divergence or convergence in educational performance and financing across counties in Victorian England? (published online, 2010), http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/international_history_politics/users/stefano_ugolini/public/papers/Mitch.pdf (accessed 6/2/2015).

67. Hollingworth, B. C., “Developments in English teaching in elementary schools under the revised code,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 4, no. 2 (1972): 22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

68. Report of the committee of council on education 1866–7 (London, 1867), 31.

69. Reports from Committees Education, 188.

70. Coltham, J., “Educational Accountability: an English experiment and its outcome,” The School Review 81, no. 1 (1972)Google Scholar; Stephens, Education in Britain, 7; Jabbar, “The case of payment by results,” 229.

71. Report of the committee of council on education 1866–7, xxi.

72. Report of the committee of council on education 1865–6 (London 1866), 268; Report of the committee of council on education 1867–8 (London, 1868), 79; Report of the committee of council on education 1868–9 (London, 1869), 68.

73. Report of the committee of council on education 1865–6, 111.

74. Proceedings of the Church Congress held at Bristol . . . (London, 1864), 282.

75. First report of the Royal Commission, 9.

76. Mitch, Did high stakes testing policies result in divergence . . . ? 33.

77. Shuttleworth, Memorandum, 14.

78. Morris, “Public Expenditure,” 6.

79. Moss, G., “Disentangling policy intentions: educational practice and the discourse of quantification: accounting for the policy of payment by results in 19th century England,” in Literacy as numbers: a teacher’s book, ed. Hamilton, M., Maddox, B., and Addey, C. (Cambridge, 2015), 8587.Google Scholar

80. Morris, “Public expenditure,” 8.

81. Ibid.

82. Elkington, T., “The insurmountable evil: problems of attendance in urban elementary schools in the first decade of the revised code,” History of Education Society Bulletin, no. 51 (1993): 11.Google Scholar

83. Report of the committee of council on education 1868–69, 101–2.

84. Webber-Mortiboys, C., “School Attendance in Henley-in-Arden,” History of Education Society Bulletin, no. 44 (1989): 2939.Google Scholar

85. Elkington, “The insurmountable evil,” 15.

86. Report of the committee of council on education 1868–9, 91–94.

87. C. Webber-Mortiboys, “School attendance,” 38, 41.

88. Report of the committee of council on education 1872–3 (London, 1873), 27, 39, 54, 71, 104, 113, 131, 166, 201.

89. Rowntree, B. S., Poverty: a study of town life (London, 1908 [1901]), 136Google Scholar; Humphries, J., Childhood and child labour in the 19th Century (Cambridge, 2010), 78.Google Scholar

90. R. Betts, Dr. Mcnamara (Liverpool, 1999).

91. Humphries, Childhood and child labour, 316–17.

92. Long, J., “The socio-economic return to primary schooling in Victorian England,” Journal of Economic History 66, no. 4 (2006): 1028, 1038.Google Scholar

93. Bergen, B. H., “Only a schoolmaster: gender, class, and the effort to professionalise elementary teaching in England, 1870–1910,” History of Education Quarterly 22, no. 1 (1982): 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

94. Armytage, W. H. G., “A. J. Mundella as Vice President of the Council and the schools question 1880–1885,” English Historical Review 63, no. 246 (1948): 54.Google Scholar

95. Searle, G. R., A new England? Peace and war, 1886–1918 (Oxford, 2004), 50.Google Scholar

96. McCarthy, E. F. M., Certain weak points of the elementary education code (London, 1877), 1617.Google Scholar

97. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 191.

98. Armytage, “A.J. Mundella as Vice President of the Council,” 250.

99. First report of the Royal Commission into the working of the Elementary Education Acts, England and Wales (London, 1886), 33.

100. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 263.

101. Evans, “The contribution of Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland 1847–1926 to the education system of England and Wales,” 223–37.

102. Dalglish, N., “Sir John Gorst as an educational innovator: a reappraisal,” History of Education 21, no. 3 (1992): 269.Google Scholar

103. Mahoney and Thelen, “A theory of gradual institutional change,” 1.

104. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 193.

105. Marsham, “Recent Interpretations,” 126; Stephens, Education in Britain, 18.

106. Taylor, T., “Lord Salisbury and the politics of education,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 16, no. 1 (1984): 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

107. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 193.

108. Report of the committee of council on education 1864–5 (London, 1865), 160; Marsden, W. E., Educating the respectable: a study of the Fleet Road Boarding School, Hampstead 1879–1903 (London, 1993), 271Google Scholar; Wardle, D., Education and society in 19th Century Nottingham (Cambridge, 2010), 75Google Scholar; Smith, J. T., “No subject more neglected: Victorian elementary school history, 1862–1900,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 41, no. 2 (2009): 131, 143, Jabbar, “The case of payment by results,” 226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

109. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 196–98.

110. Smith, “No subject more neglected,” 144.

111. Bayley, S., “Life is too short to learn German: modern languages in English elementary education, 1872–1904,” History of Education 18, no. 1 (1989): 6162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

112. Smith “No subject more neglected,” 144.

113. Ibid. 146.

114. Gordon, P. and White, J., Philosophers as educational reformers: the influence of idealism on British educational thought and practice (London, 1979), 1012Google Scholar; Gardner, P., “‘There and not seen’: E.B. Sargent and educational reform, 1884–1905,” History of Education 33, no. 6 (2004): 614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

115. Hansard HC Deb, 31 July 1893, vol. 15, col. 899.

116. Gordon and White, Philosophers as educational reformers, 77–78; Roberts, N., “Character in the mind: citizenship, education, and psychology in Britain 1880–1914,” History of Education 33, no. 2 (2004: 177–97).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

117. Heathorn, S., “‘Let us remember that we too are English’: Constructions of Citizenship and national identity in English elementary school reading books,” Victorian Studies 38, no. 3 (1995): 396–97;Google Scholar Yeandle, P., “Empire, Englishness, and elementary school history education, c. 1880–1914,” International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research 3 (2003): 5973.Google Scholar

118. Daglish, Education policy making in England and Wales, 2; Wright, S., “Teachers, family, and community in the urban elementary school: evidence from English school log books, c. 1880–1910,” History of Education 41, no. 2 (2012): 157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

119. Phillips, D., The German example: English interest in educational provision in Germany since 1800 (New York, 2011), 8497Google Scholar; Ziman, J., “Social responsibility in Victorian science,” in Science, technology, and society in the time of Alfred Nobel: Nobel Symposium 52, ed. Bernhard, C. G., Crawford, E., and Sorbor, P. (Oxford, 2013), 2526.Google Scholar

120. Hansard HC Deb, 12 February 1890, vol. 341, col. 162.

121. Wilshaw, B., ed., Royal Commission on education: being extracts from the evidence with explanatory notes and tables (London, 1888), 34.Google Scholar

122. Holmes, E., What is and what must be done (London, Constable and Co. 1911), 116.Google Scholar

123. Fitch Lectures on teaching, 179.

124. Ibid.

125. Martin, ed., Life and letters, 217.

126. Gardner, “There and not seen,” 620.

127. Report of the committee of council on education 1865–6, 50.

128. Horn, “Changing Attitudes,” 52–53; Searle, A new England, 46–48; Roberts, M. J. D., Making English morals: voluntary association and moral reform in England, 1787–1886 (Cambridge, 2004), 278.Google Scholar

129. Robertson, A. B., “Children, Teachers, and, Society: the over-pressure controversy 1880–1886,” British Journal of Educational Studies 20, no. 3 (1972): 320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

130. Middleton, J., “The Overpressure Epidemic of 1884 and the culture of nineteenth century schooling,” History of Education 33, no. 4 (2004): 432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

131. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 256; Horn, “Changing Attitudes,” 54.

132. Final Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the elementary education acts England and Wales (London, 1888), 179.

133. The educational reporter and science teachers’ review October 15th 1869 (London 1869), 5; Coltham, “Educational Accountability,” 30.

134. Musgrave, C. W., Society and education in England (London, 2013 [1968]), 66.Google Scholar

135. Ashton, E. T. and Young, A. F., British social work in the 19th Century (Abingdon, 2013 [1956]), 25lGoogle Scholar; Searle, A new England? 93.

136. Daglish, N. D., “Planning the education bill of 1896,” History of Education 16, no. 2 (1987): 92;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Betts, R., “A new type of elementary teacher: George Collins, 1839–91,” History of Education 27, no. 1 (1998): 25;Google Scholar Smith, J. T., “‘The enemy within?’: the clergyman and the English school boards 1870–1902,” History of Education 38, no. 1 (2009): 135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

137. Betts, “A new type of elementary teacher,” 19; Betts, R., “Dr McNamara at the Schoolmaster 1892–1907,” History of Education 31, no. 1 (2002): 3957.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

138. Betts, R., “‘We’ve got to live here after you’ve gone’: the National Union of Teachers and the Wilmington case,” Journal of Educational Administration and History 33, no. 1 (2001): 49.Google Scholar

139. Final Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the elementary education acts England and Wales (London, 1888), 179; Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 258.

140. Bergen, “Only a schoolmaster,” 14–15; Evans, “The contribution of Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland 1847–1926 to the education system of England and Wales,” 242.

141. Mitch, D., The rise of popular literacy in Victorian England: the influence of private choice and public policy (Philadelphia 1992), 144.Google Scholar

142. Fitch, J. G., Lectures on teaching delivered in the University of Cambridge during the Lent Term 1880 (Cambridge, 1881), 2.Google Scholar

143. Smith, J. T., A Victorian class conflict: school teaching, the parson, priest, and minister (Brighton, 2009), 70, 173–75Google Scholar; see also Marsden, W. E.. “Time, place, and social space of a Victorian teaching family,” in History and education: essays presented to Peter Gordon, ed. Aldrich, R. (London 1996), 32.Google Scholar

144. Sir G. Kekewich, The Education Department and after (London, 1923), v, 50.

145. Smelser, N. J., Social paralysis and social change: British working class education in the nineteenth century (Berkeley, 1991), 332Google Scholar; Daglish, Education policy making in England and Wales, 443.

146. Gardner, “There and not seen,” 621.

147. Hansard HC Deb, 21 February 1890, vol. 341, cols. 915–16.

148. Brown, A., “Ellen Pinsent, including the feeble minded in Birmingham 1900–1913,” History of Education 34, no. 5 (2005): 535, 541;CrossRefGoogle Scholar McDermid, J., “School board women and active citizenship in Scotland 1873–1919,” History of Education 38, no. 3 (2009): 333–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

149. Hunter, A., A life of Sir John Gorst (London, 2001), 215–16.Google Scholar

150. Daglish, Education policy making in England and Wales, 39.

151. Sutherland, Policy making in elementary education, 263.

152. Fletcher, “A further comment,” 30.

153. Hansard HC Deb, 31 July 1893, vol. 15 col. 899.

154. Mintrupp, H. and Sunderman, G. L., “Predictable failure of federal sanctions driven accountability for school improvement and why we may retain it anyway,” Educational Researcher 38, no. 5 (2009): 353–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

155. Ladd, H. F., “The Dallas school accountability and incentive program: an evaluation of its impacts on student outcomes,” Economics of Education Review 18 (1999): 116Google Scholar; Jacobs, B. A., Accountability, incentives, and behaviour: the impact of high stakes testing in the Chicago public schools NBER Working Paper No. 8968 (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 43Google Scholar; Fryer, G., Teacher incentives and student achievement: evidence from the New York public city schools NBER Working Paper No. 16850 (Cambridge, Mass., 2011).Google Scholar

156. Ballou, D., “Pay for performance in public and private schools,” Economics of education review 20 (2001): 52, 60.Google Scholar

157. D. Eyre, Able children in ordinary schools (Abingdon, 2013 [1997]); No child left behind (Washington, D.C., 2001).

158. M. Power, The audit society: rituals of verification (Oxford, 1999); Groundwater-Smith, S. and Sachs, J., “The activist professional and the reinstatement of trust,” Cambridge Journal of Education 32, no. 3 (2002): 341–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar