‘I am very glad and cheered when I hear the flute’: The Treatment of Criminal Lunatics in Late Victorian Broadmoor

1. Berkshire Record Office (BRO), D/H14/D2/2/1/1116, letter, 10 August 1883. Hereafter, all references beginning D/H14 are from the BRO.

2. Shorter, Edward, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York and Chichester: Wiley, 1997), 33.

3. Smith, Roger, Trial by Medicine: Insanity and Responsibility in Victorian Trials (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), 22.

4. Burnett, C.M., What Shall We Do With the Criminal Lunatics? A Letter Addressed to the Right Honourable Lord St Leonards, on the Introduction of His New Lunacy Bills (London: Highly and Son, 1853).

5. Hood, W.C., Suggestions for the Future Provision of Criminal Lunatics (London: John Churchill, 1854), 10: 27.

6. Bucknill, John Charles, Unsoundness of the Mind in Relation to Criminal Acts 2nd edn (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts, 1857), 119.

7. Bucknill, John Charles, An Inquiry into the Proper Classification and Treatment of Criminal Lunatics: A Letter Addressed to Samuel Trehawke Kekewich (London: John Churchill, 1852), 10.

8. Ibid.For Dundrum, see Pauline Prior, Madness and Murder: Gender, Crime and Mental Disorder in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin & Portland, OR: Irish Academic Press, 2008).

9. ‘Medico-Parliamentary’, The Lancet, 25 July 1857, 96; Criminal Lunatic Asylum. A Bill to Make Better Provision for the Custody and Care of Criminal Lunatics, 1860 (175) 11.811.

10. Rules for the Guidance of the Officers of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1863), 3.

11. A second block for female patients opened in May 1867.

12. Patients were not referred to as ‘inmates’. The term ‘convicts’ was applied only to insane convicts but they were treated as patients.

13. Deborah Weiner, “‘This coy and secluded dwelling”: Broadmoor Asylum for the Criminally Insane’, in Leslie Topp, James E. Moran and Jonathan Andrews (eds), Madness, Architecture and the Built Environment (New York and London: Routledge, 2007), 131–48; Jonathan Andrews, ‘From Stack-Firing to Pyromania: Medico-Legal Concepts of Insane Arson in British, US and European Contexts, c. 1800–1913. Part 1’, History of Psychiatry, 21, 3 (2010), 243–60. Broadmoor’s infanticidal patients have been examined. Jonathan Andrews, ‘The boundaries of Her Majesty’s pleasure: discharging child-murderers from Broadmoor and Perth Criminal Lunatic Department c. 1860–1920’, in Mark Jackson (ed.), Infanticide: Historical Perspectives on Child Murder and Concealment, 1550–2000 (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2002), 216–48; Jade Shepherd, “‘One of the Best Fathers Until He Went Out of His Mind”: Paternal Child-Murder, 1864–1900’, Journal of Victorian Culture, 18, 1 (2013), 17–35. Popular histories have focused on Broadmoor’s famous patients. For example, Nicholas Tromans, Richard Dadd: The Artist and the Asylum (London: Tate Publishing, 2011). Criminal lunatics at the Devon and Warwick asylums have been examined: Joseph Melling, Bill Forsythe and Richard Adair, ‘Families, communities and the legal regulation of lunacy in Victorian England: assessments of crime, violence and welfare in admissions to the Devon Asylum, 1845–1914’, in Peter Bartlett and David Wright (eds), Outside the Walls of the Asylum: This History of Care in the Community 1750–2000 (London and New Brunswick, NJ: The Athlone Press, 1999), 153–180; Janet Saunders, ‘Magistrates and madmen: segregating the criminally insane in late-nineteenth century Warwickshire’, in Victor Bailey (ed.), Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 217–41.

14. Roy Porter, ‘The Patient’s View: Doing Medical History From Below’, Theory and Society, 14, 2 (1985), 175–98. Alexandra Bacopoulos-Viau and Aude Fauvel, ‘The Patient’s Turn Roy Porter and Psychiatry’s Tales, Thirty Years On’, Medical History, 60, 1 (2016), 1–18. The continued value of examining patients’ experiences is demonstrated by the recent special edition of Medical History, ‘Tales from the asylum. Patient narratives and the (de)construction of psychiatry’, (ed.) by Bacopoulos-Viau and Fauvel, ibid.See also various essays in Thomas Knowles and Serena Trowbridge (eds), Insanity and the Lunatic Asylum in the Nineteenth Century (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2015).

15. For a thorough discussion of the literature, Bacopoulos-Viau and Fauvel, ibid.For work making use of patients’ letters, see Catharine Coleborne, ‘Families, Patients and Emotions: Asylums for the Insane in Colonial Australia and New Zealand, c. 1880–1910, Social History of Medicine, 19, 3 (2006), 425–42; Louise Hide, Gender and Class in English Asylums, 1890–1914 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Charlotte Mackenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum, 1792–1917 (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); Benoit Majerus, ‘Making Sense of the ‘Chemical Revolution’. Patients’ Voices on the Introduction of Neuroleptics in the 1950s’, Medical History, 60, 1 (2016), 54–66; Leonard D. Smith “‘Your Very Thankful Inmate”: Discovering the Patients of an Early County Lunatic Asylum’, Social History of Medicine, 21, 2 (2008), 237–52; Akihito Suzuki, Madness at Home: the Psychiatrist, the Patient, and the Family in England, 1820–60 (University of California Press, 2006); Louise Wannell, ‘Patients’ Relatives and Psychiatric Doctors: Letter Writing in the York Retreat, 1875–1910, Social History of Medicine, 20, 2 (2007), 297–313. In addition to that undertaken by Coleborne, work has been done on the views of patients and their friends and families in colonial asylums. For example, Bronwyn Labrum, ‘Looking Beyond the Asylum: Gender and the Process of Committal in Auckland, 1870–1910’, New Zealand Journal of History, 26, 2 (1992), 125–144.

16. Andrews, Jonathan, ‘Case Notes, Case Histories, and the Patients Experience of Insanity at Gartnavel Royal Asylum, Glasgow, in the Nineteenth Century’, Social History of Medicine, 11, 2 (1998), 255–281, 281.

17. Ibid., 269; Allan Beveridge, ‘Voices of the Mad: Patients’ Letters from the Royal Edinburgh Asylum, 1873–1908’, Psychological Medicine, 27, 4 (1997), 899–908: 900.

18. Marjorie Levine-Clark, ‘Embarrassed circumstances: gender, poverty, & insanity in the West Riding of England in the early Victorian years’, in Jonathan Andrews and Anne Digby (eds), Sex and Seclusion, Class and Custody: Perspectives on Gender and Class in the History of British and Irish Psychiatry (New York: Rodopi, 2004), 123–48: 126.

19. ‘This is also true of the Morningside asylum records. See, Allan Beveridge, ‘Life in the Asylum: Patients’ Letters From Morningside, 1873–1908’, History of Psychiatry, 36, 9(1998), 431–469, 461.

20. An individual suffering from partial insanity ‘suffers delusion on one point and is sane on all others’. J. Russell Reynolds, On the Scientific Value of the Legal Tests of Insanity: A Paper Read before the Metropolitan Counties Branch of the British Medical Association (London: J & A Churchill, 1872), 46.

21. Some work has been done on letters of working-class patients: Ibid., Coleborne, op. cit. (note 15).

22. Andrews, op. cit. (note 16).

23. . Illiteracy did not always prevent patients from communicating in writing. In 1891, illiterate patient John Cooper sent a letter to Superintendent Richard Brayn. Another patient wrote the letter on Cooper’s behalf, noting at the bottom ‘written for him by a friend’, D/H14/D2/2/1/373/5.

24. Anne Digby, Madness, Morality and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat 1796–1914 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 8; Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 1840–83, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), xi; Michel Foucault, History of Madness, trans. by John Murphy and Jean Khalfa (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 485.

25. Andrew Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700–1900 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993), 272. Also, Joseph Melling and Bill Forsythe, The Politics of Madness: The State, Insanity and Society in England, 1846–1914 (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 46–7.

26. ‘Sarah Chaney has assessed the impact the distinction between patients at Bethlem had on asylum experiences: ‘No “Sane” Person Would Have Any Idea’: Patients’ Involvement in Late Nineteenth-century British Asylum Psychiatry’, Medical History, 60, 1(2016), 37–53.

27. Hill, Robert Gardiner, A Concise History of the Entire Abolition of Mechanical Restraint in the Treatment of the Insane; and of the Introduction, Success, and Final Triumph of the Non-Restraint System: Together with a Reprint of a Lecture Delivered on the Subject in the Year 1838; and Appendices, Containing an Account of the Controversies and Claims Connected Therewith (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1857).

28. Clark, J., A Memoir of John Conolly, MD, DCL, Comprising a Sketch of the Treatment of the Insane in Europe and America (London: John Murray, 1869), 35.

29. Rules for the Guidance of Officers, Attendants, and Servants of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum(London: Ford and Tilt, 1869), 3.

30. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1864(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1865), 9.

31. Ibid.; Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum with Statistical Tables, For the Year 1866 (London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1867), 6–7.

32. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum with Statistical Tables, For the Year 1865(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1866), 8.

33. For patients who were not Church of England, Wesleyan and Roman Catholic services were provided. A rabbi also visited Broadmoor.

34. Reports (1864), op. cit. (note 30), 8.

35. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1873(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1874), 8.

36. D/H14/A2/1/1/13, Annual Report 1898, 5–6.

37. Reports (1864), op. cit. (note 30), 7–8.

38. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1876(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1877), 9.

39. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1871(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1872), 7.

40. ‘Alienists put much thought into asylum location, design and décor: John Conolly’, The Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums, and Hospitals for the Insane(London: J. Churchill, 1847), 26–44.

41. National Archives (NA), MH 51/49, Lunacy Commissioners’ letter.

42. D/H14/A1/1/1/1, Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1867); Annual Report (1899), op. cit. (note 36), 13.

43. Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 95.

44. NA, MH 51/49-4074, Lunacy Commissioners’ Report.

45. Alfred Bligh was transferred out of block two because he was ‘a bad example to others for a man of intelligence.’ D/H14/D2/2/1/1284/29, memorandum.

46. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1863 (London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1864), 3; Reports (1864), op. cit. (note 30), 2.

47. Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1864), op. cit. (note 42).

48. Jonathan Andrews has suggested that annual reports were one method of promoting and legitimising the asylum. Andrews, op. cit. (note 16), 271.

49. See for example, D/H14/D2/2/1/729/5, letter to Orange.

50. D/H14/D2/2/2/105, letter to Lucy Thompson.

51. D/H14/D2/2/1/12112/21, letter to the Home Office.

52. D/H14/D2/2/1/1212/26, letter to Thomas Longmore.

53. Shepherd, Anne C., ‘Mental Health Care and Charity for the Middling Sort: Holloway Sanatorium, 1885–1900’, in Borsay, Anne and Shapely, Peter (eds), Medicine, Charity and Mutual Aid: The Consumption of Health and Welfare in Britain, 1550–1950 (Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2007), 163–182.

54. D/H14/D2/2/1/1074/57, letter to Nicolson.

55. D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/29, letter.

56. Oonagh Walsh, ‘Lunatic and criminal alliances in nineteenth-century Ireland’, in Bartlett and Wright (eds), op. cit. (note 13), 132–52: 149.

57. Anne Shepherd, ‘The female patient experience in two late-nineteenth century Surrey asylums’, in Andrews and Digby (eds), op. cit. (note 18), 223–48: 236: 243; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (New York: Virago Press, 1987), 98; Chaney, op. cit. (note 26), 43.

58. See, for example, the case of Arthur Ludlow, D/H14/D2/2/1/1310.

59. D/H14/D1/2/2/146/9, letter to Orange.

60. D/H14/D2/2/1/905/56, medical report.

61. Shepherd, op. cit. (note 13).

62. For the social class of Broadmoor’s patients, David Nicolson, ‘The Measure of Individual and Social Responsibility in Criminal Cases’, Journal of Mental Science, 24 (July 1878), 249–73: 272. In her study of Ticehurst, a private asylum, Charlotte MacKenzie found that some upper- and middle-class families ‘had low expectations about the care their relatives might receive’. Mackenzie, op. cit. (note 15), 98.

63. D/H14/D2/2/1/186/21, letter to Nicolson.

64. Andrew Scull, The Insanity of Place, The Place of Insanity: Essays on the History of Psychiatry (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 23; Smith, op. cit. (note 15.); Wannell, op. cit. (note 15).

65. ‘Broadmoor Asylum’, The Lancet, 20 August 1881, 358.

66. Nicolson, David, ‘Obituary: William Orange’, British Medical Journal, 13 (January 1917), 67–69: 68.

67. McDowall, T.W. and Tuke, Daniel Hack, ‘French Retrospect’, Journal of Mental Science, (April 1884), 150–153: 153.

68. ‘Nicolson viewed Broadmoor as an exciting opportunity to undertake research. He hoped that studying the asylum’s patients would help ‘prevent’ criminal lunacy, benefiting society. David Nicolson, ‘The Measure of Individual and Social Responsibility in Criminal Cases’, Journal of Mental Science, 24(July 1878), 249–273: 273.

69. Shortt, S.E.D., Victorian Lunacy: Richard M. Bucke and the Practice of Late Nineteenth-Century Psychiatry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 158.

70. Browne, W.A.F., ‘The Moral Treatment of the Insane: A Lecture’, Journal of Mental Science, 20 (October 1864), 309–337: 318.

71. Shepherd, op. cit. (note 57), 240–1; Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1867), op. cit. (note 42).

72. See, for example, Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 114.

73. Reports (1876), op. cit. (note 38), 8.

74. D/H14/D2/2/1/836/4, note.

75. Foucault, op. cit. (note 24), 485.

76. Digby, op. cit. (note 24), 63.

77. Foucault, op. cit. (note 24), 485.

78. Gordon, Harvey, Broadmoor (London: Psychology News Press, 2012), 8.

79. Nicolson, David, ‘Presidential Address Delivered at the Fifty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association, Held in London, 25 and 26 July, 1895’, Journal of Mental Science, 41 (October 1895), 567–591: 577–8.

80. Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 143; Pamela Michael, ‘Class, gender and insanity in nineteenth-century Wales’, in Andrews and Digby (eds), op. cit. (note 18), 95–122: 111–5; Shepherd, op. cit. (note 53), 225.

81. Judith Knelman suggests that murderer Christiana Edmunds was committed into Broadmoor, rather than be hanged, in order to be transformed into the feminine ideal. Twisting the Wind: The Murderess and the English Press (Toronto, Buffalo & London: Toronto University Press, 1999), 141.

82. For example, Jesse Oakely was discharged even though he was feeble minded and ‘naturally… defective.’ D/H14/D2/2/1/227/17, medical report.

83. Jonathan Andrews and Anne Digby, ‘Introduction: gender and class in the historiography of British and Irish psychiatry’, in Andrews and Digby, op. cit. (note 18), 7–44: 29.

84. For social control and the bourgeois asylum, Digby. op. cit. (note 24), 8; Tomes, op. cit. (note 24), xi.

85. J.K. Walton, ‘Casting out and bringing back in Victorian England: pauper lunatics, 1840–70’, in William F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepherd (eds), The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry3 vols (London: Routledge, 1985–88), VII (1985), 132–146: 142; Catherine Cox, Hilary Marland and Sarah York, ‘Emaciated, Exhausted and Excited: The Bodies and Minds of the Irish in Nineteenth-Century Lancashire Asylums’, Journal of Social History, 46, 2 (2012), 500–24: 511; Steven Cherry, Mental Health Care in Modern England: The Norfolk Lunatic Asylum/St Andrews Hospital 1810–1998 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003), 89–90.

86. Henry Maudsley, Body and Mind: An Inquiry Into Their Connection and Mutual Influence, Specially in Reference to Mental Disorders being the Gulstonian Lectures for 1870, delivered before the Royal College of Physicians (London: Macmillan, 1870), 60. For Clouston, Mackenzie, op. cit. (note 15), 173.

87. Phil Fennell, Treatment Without Consent: Law, Psychiatry and the Treatment of Mentally Disordered People Since 1845 (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), 48; Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 133.

88. Following Meyer’s appointment, the Council asked him to visit Broadmoor and report any alterations he believed necessary. Meyer took ‘as my guide the generally accepted views on the care and treatment of persons of unsound mind’. NA, MH 51 49, Meyer’s Report.

89. Nicolson, David, ‘The Morbid Psychology of Criminals’, Journal of Mental Science, 21 (July 1875), 225–253: 233; Nicolson, op. cit. (note 62), 262.

90. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum for the Year 1888(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1889), 6.

91. These statistics are based on an examination of the admissions registers. D/H14/D1/1/1/1, Admissions Register, 1863–71; D/H14/D1/1/1/2, Admissions Register, 1868–1900.

92. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum with Statistical Tables, For the Year 1874(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1875), 7.

93. Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1868), op. cit. (note 42).

94. For the recidivist, Barry Godfrey, David Cox and Stephen Farrall, Serious Offenders: A Historical Study of Habitual Criminals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Reports (1874), op. cit. (note 92), 7. Representations of recidivists were gendered: Susan Broomhall and David G. Barrie, ‘Introduction’, in Susan Broomhall and David G. Barrie (eds), A History of Police and Masculinities, 1700–2010 (Oxon: Routledge, 2012), 1–34.

95. Watson, Stephen, ‘Malingerers, the ‘Weakminded’ Criminal and the ‘Moral Imbecile’: How the English Prison Medical Officer Became an Expert in Mental Deficiency, 1880–1930’, in Clark, Michael and Crawford, Catherine (eds), Legal Medicine in History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 223–241.

96. Maudsley quoted in Janet Saunders, ‘Quarantining the weak minded: psychiatric definitions of degeneracy and the late-Victorian asylum’, in Bynum, Porter and Shepherd (eds), op. cit. (note 85), 273–97: 277.

97. Maudsley, Henry, Body and Will: Being an Essay Concerning Will in its Metaphysical, Physiological, and Pathological Aspects (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1884), 276–277.

98. Morrison, W.D., Crime and its Causes (London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1891), 225–226.

99. Admissions Registers, op. cit. (note 91).

100. Reports (1874), op. cit. (note 92), 12.

101. D/H14/A2/1/6/1, Minutes of the Council, 4 June 1869.

102. D/H14/D2/2/1/1363, letter to the Council.

103. ‘Criminal Lunatics and Lunatic Convicts’, British Medical Journal, 4(July 1874), 14–16: 15.

104. Reports (1873), op. cit. (note 35), 12.

105. Lunacy Commissioners’ Reports (1873 and 1874), op. cit. (note 42).

106. D/H14/D2/2/1/1699, Broadmoor Prisoner’s Prayer.

107. Gilman, Sander L., Disease and Representation: Images of Illnesses from Madness to Aids (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1988), 99.

108. Lunacy Commissioners quoted in Reports (1874), op. cit. (note 92), 8–9.

109. NA, HO45/9525 32338/21, memorandum.

110. D/H14/A1/1/1/2/1/1, Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1875).

111. D/H14/A1/1/1/2/3/4, Lunacy Commissioners’ Report (1878).

112. NA, HO. 45.9754. A.60166, notes of the Criminal Lunacy Commission; NA, HO45/9525 32338/20, letter to the Home Office.

113. For discussions on construction, NA, HO45/9525 32338.

114. Reports Upon Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, With Statistical Tables, For the Year 1889(London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1890), 5.

115. Lunacy Commissioners’ Report in Ibid., 9–12: 10.

116. Annual Report (1899), op. cit. (note 36), 13.

117. Reports (1889), op. cit. (note 114), 5.

118. For example, David Nicolson, ‘The Morbid Psychology of Criminals’, Journal of Mental Science, 20 (July 1874), 167–185. For more about Nicolson, see Neil Davie, Tracing the Criminal: The Rise of Criminology in Britain, 1860–1918 (Oxford: Bardwell Press, 2005).

119. Nicolson, op. cit. (note 79), 233.

120. D/H14/D2/2/1/1363, letter to the Council, 11 July 1889.

121. Ibid.

122. Peter Bartlett, ‘The asylum and the poor law: the productive alliance’, in Joseph Melling and Bill Forsythe (eds), Insanity, Institutions and Society, 1880–1914: A Social History of Madness in Comparative Perspective (London: Routledge, 1999), 48–67.

123. Nicolson, op. cit. (note 79), 580.

124. NA, HO. 45.9754. A.60166/12 report on admissions and discharges, 1899.

125. NA, HO. 45.9754. A.60166/9, letter to the Home Office.

126. Ibid.

127. Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 133.

128. Partridge, Ralph, Broadmoor: A History of Criminal Lunacy and its Problems (London: Chatto & Windus, 1953), 91–92.

129. Reports of the Superintendent and Chaplain of Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum with Statistical Tables, For the Year 1880(London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1881), 88–95: 93.

130. Fennell, op. cit. (note 87), 59.

131. ‘For the Victorian prison system, Martin Wiener’, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in England, 1830–1914(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 105–109.

132. Letter to the Home Office, op. cit. (note 125).

133. In March 1868, Meyer recorded that Orange had complained: ‘I am not doing my duty I am not doctoring the patients.’ D/H14/A2/1/3/1, Superintendent’s Journal.

134. Partridge, op. cit. (note 128), 91.

135. Annual Report (1898), op. cit. (note 36), 5–6; Reports Upon Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, With Statistical Tables, For the Year 1898 (London: Darling & Son Ltd, 1899), 5.

136. Reports Upon Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, With Statistical Tables, For the Year 1900(London: Darling & Son Ltd, 1901), 10.

137. Scull, Andrew, Madness in Civilisation: A Cultural History of Insanity from the Bible to Freud, from the Madhouse to Modern Medicine (London: Thames and Hudson, 2015), 230.

138. Hide, op. cit. (note 15), 39.

139. For example, D/H14/D1/2/2/398/41, letter to Brayn.

140. Scull, op. cit. (note 137), 229.