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³ Bruno Hildebrand drew an influential contrast between Smith's “abstract” rationalism (which Hildebrand associated with the Enlightenment, and with Rousseau and Kant), and his own conception of a historically grounded economics that would be sensitive to cultural and national contexts. See Hildebrand, Bruno, Die Nationalökonomie der Gegenwart und der Zukunft (Franfurt am Main, 1848), 27–9Google Scholar. For a modern variant of the argument see Fischel, Walter J., “Der Historismus in der Wirtschaftswissenschaft: Dargestellt an der Entwicklung von Adam Müller bis Bruno Hildebrand,” Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 47/1 (1960), 1–31 Google Scholar. For comment, see Rothschild, Emma, “Bruno Hildebrands Kritik an Adam Smith,” in Schefold, Bertram, ed., Bruno Hildebrands “Die Nationalökonomie der Gegenwart und Zukunft”: Vademecum zu einer Klassiker der Stufenlehren (Düsseldorf, 1998), 133–71Google Scholar.

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⁶ Hewitson, Mark, National Identity and Political Thought in Germany: Wilhelmine Depictions of the French Third Republic 1890–1914 (Oxford, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Llanque, Marcus, Demokratisches Denken im Krieg: Die deutsche Debatte im Ersten Weltkrieg (Berlin, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ An excellent starting point for understanding Roscher's engagement with classical Greek history, historiography and philosophy is Morley, Neville, “Thucydides, History and Historicism in Wilhelm Roscher,” in Harloe, Katherine and Morley, Neville, eds., Thucydides and the Modern World: Reception, Reinterpretation and Influence from the Renaissance to the Present (Cambridge, 2012), 115–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁹ The term Staatswirthschaft was not a precise equivalent to Nationalökonomie, and cannot be directly equated with the English term “political economy.” Roscher's usage of Staatswirthschaft corresponded with that of his Göttingen predecessor, Georg Sartorius. Nevertheless, I will occasionally translate Staatswirthschaft as “political economy” in preference to “state economy.” On these terminological distinctions see Tribe, Governing Economy, 149–82.

¹⁰ Roscher, Wilhelm, Grundriß zu Vorlesungen über die Staatswirthschaft: Nach geschichtlicher Methode (Göttingen, 1843), v Google Scholar.

¹¹ Roscher, Grundriß, iv.

¹² Roscher, Wilhelm, (review of) “Friedrich List, Das national System der politischen Ökonomie. Erster Band: der internationale Handel, die Handelspolitik und der deutsche Zollverein ,” Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 118 (1842), 1177–1216, at 1178Google Scholar.

¹³ Tribe, “Historical Economics”; Pearson, “Was There Really a German Historical School of Economics?”.

¹⁴ Roscher, Grundriß, iv. A similar perspective is adopted in Roscher, Wilhelm, Leben, Werk und Zeitalter des Thukydides: Mit einer Einleitung zur Aesthetik der historischen Kunst überhaupt (Göttingen, 1842), vii Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Aristotle, , The Politics and the Constitution of Athens, ed. Everson, Stephen (Cambridge, 1996), 28 (12509b—Book 1, chap. 13)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Roscher, review of List, 1178–80. Cooper was a significant target, since he had explicitly argued that politics “are not essentially a part of Political Economy.” See Cooper, Thomas, Lectures on the Elements of Political Economy (Columbia, SC, 1826), 15–16 Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Roscher, Wihelm, “Ueber das Verhältniss der Nationalökonomie zum klassischen Alterthume,” Berichte über die Verhandlungen der königlich-sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaft zu Leipzig. Philologisch-historische Classe, 1 (1849), 115–34, at 120Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Roscher, Grundriß, 2.

¹⁹ Roscher, “Ueber das Verhaltniss,” 116.

²⁰ Ibid.

²¹ Roscher, review of List, 1179.

²² Ibid., 1214–6. For comment see especially Keith Tribe, “Die Vernunft des List: National Economy and the Critique of Cosmopolitical Economy,” in Tribe, Strategies of Economic Order, 32–65.

²³ Roscher, review of List, 1196–7. For Roscher's consideration of the moral and political dangers associated with an elaborate division of labour, which drew upon the work of Adam Ferguson as well as Smith, see Roscher, Wilhelm, System der Volkswirthschaft: Ein Hand- und Lesebuch für Geschäftsmänner und Studierend, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1854–94), 1: 84–8Google Scholar.

²⁴ Roscher, System der Volkswirthschaft, 1: 17 n. Roscher cited Smith, Adam, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. Campbell, R. H. and Skinner, A. S., 2 vols. (Oxford, 1976), IV.ii.30 (I.464–5)Google Scholar.

²⁵ Roscher, Thukydides, viii.

²⁶ For a study that emphasizes Roscher's connection to this tradition see especially Lindenfeld, The Practical Imagination, 154–7. See also Bödeker, Hans Erich, Büttgen, Philippe and Espagne, Michel, eds., Göttingen vers 1800: L'Europe des sciences de l'homme (Paris, 2010)Google Scholar; Manhart, Sebastian, In den Feldern des Wissens: Studiengang, Fach und disziplinäre Semantik in den Geschichts- und Staatswissenschaften (1780–1860) (Würzburg, 2011), 125–270 Google Scholar. Roscher became Privatdozent following Dahlmann's departure from Göttingen after the famous “Göttingen Seven” affair of 1837. On the 1837 affair see Brophy, J. M., “Hanover and Göttingen, 1837,” Victorian Studies Association of Western Canada, 36/1 (2010), 9–14 Google Scholar.

²⁷ Schlözer's claim that statistics and history were inseparable parts of Politik appeared in August Schlözer, Ludwig, Theorie der Statistik: Nebst Ideen über das Studium der Politik überhaupt (Göttingen, 1804), 92–3, 94–5Google Scholar. On Schlözer and his context see Reill, Peter H., “Science and the Science of History in the Spätaufklarung ,” in Bödeker, Hans-Erich, Iggers, Georg G., Knudsen, Jonathan B. and Reill, Peter H., eds., Aufklärung und Geschichte: Studien zur deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1986), 430–51Google Scholar; Marino, Luigi, Praeceptores Germaniae: Göttingen, 1770–1820 (Göttingen, 1995), 363–81Google Scholar; Gierl, Martin, Geschichte als präzisierte Wissenschaft (Stuttgart, 2012)Google Scholar. On the importance of Vergleichung in Schlözer's work see Reill, Peter Hans, The German Enlightenment and the Origins of Historicism (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1975), 198–9Google Scholar.

²⁸ Roscher, System der Volkswirtschaft, 1: 26. Wilhelm Roscher to Leopold Ranke (1842), Preussische Jahrbücher, 133 (1908), 384; cited in Reill, The German Enlightenment, 199.

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³⁰ Heeren, A. H. L., A Manual of the History of the Political System of Europe and its Colonies, from its formation at the close of the fifteenth century, to its re-establishment upon the fall of Napoleon, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1834)Google Scholar. For Roscher's references to Heeren see Roscher, , Kolonien, Kolonialpolitik und Auswanderung (Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1856), 2 Google Scholar.

³¹ Roscher, Thukydides, viii.

³² Ibid., vii.

³³ Roscher, Grundriß, 4.

³⁴ Roscher, , “Umrisse zur Naturlehre der drei Staatsformen,” Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Geschichte, 7 (1847), 79–88, 322–65, 436–78, at 457–8 nGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Roscher, System der Volkswirthschaft, 1:22.

³⁶ Roscher, Politik, iii.

³⁷ Reill, The German Enlightenment, 198–9.

³⁸ Roscher, Thukydides, xi–xii.

³⁹ On Roscher's concern with historical impartiality see Morley, “Thucydides, History and Historicism,” 115–39.

⁴⁰ Roscher laid emphasis on the parallel between ancient and modern economic history in Roscher, Grundriß, iv. In the much later Politik he entitled one chapter “Analogien aus dem Alterthume”; see Roscher, Politik, 304–7.

⁴¹ Roscher, Thukydides, 271.

⁴² Roscher, Umrisse, 458–9.

⁴³ Roscher first rehearsed this parallel in detail in Roscher, Wilhelm, “Betrachtungen über Socialismus und Communismus,” Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 3 (1845), 418–61, 540–64Google Scholar; 4 (1845), 10–28, erster Abschnitt, at 436–47.

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⁴⁵ For contemporary examples of the parallel between the modern European and ancient Greek system of states see Gervinus, Georg Gottfried, Einleitung in die Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1853), 13–14 Google Scholar; Frantz, Constantin, Untersuchungen über das europäische Gleichgewicht (Berlin, 1859), 3–4 Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ For an excellent discussion of Schmoller on this issue see Grimmer-Solem, The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 110–11.

⁴⁷ Schmoller, Gustav, “Rede zur Eröffnung der Besprechung über die sociale Frage in Eisenach, 6. Oktober 1872,” in Schmoller, , Zur Social- und Gewerbepolitik der Gegenwart: Reden und Aufsätze (Leipzig, 1890), 1–13, at 11 Google Scholar.

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⁵¹ Roscher, Wilhelm, “Ueber die Ausbildung der Staatsgewalt im Kampfe mit den kleinen juristischen Personen: Eine Abhandlung aus der geschichtlichen Politik,” Neue Jahrbücher der Geschichte und Politik, 2 (1843), 231–63Google Scholar.

⁵² Ibid., 252. For a near-contemporary usage of Patrimonialstaat, counterposed to Republik, see Fröbel, Julius, System der Sozialen Politik: Neudruck der Ausgabe Mannheim 1847 mit Einleitung von Rainer Koch, 2 vols. (Aalen, 1975), 2: 66–7Google Scholar.

⁵³ Roscher, “Über die Ausbildung,” 253–4.

⁵⁴ Ibid., 248.

⁵⁵ Ibid., 253–4.

⁵⁶ Ibid., 258–9.

⁵⁷ Ibid., 249.

⁵⁸ Ibid.

⁵⁹ See Delolme, Jean-Louis, Die Verfassung von England, dargestellt und mit der republicanischen Form und mit andern europäischen Monarchieen verglichen: Mit einer Vorrede begleitet von F. C. Dahlmann (Altona, 1819)Google Scholar. For Dahlmann's praise of the English constitution see Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph, “Ein Wort über Verfassung” (1815), in Brandt, Hartwig, ed., Restauration und Frühliberalismus 1814–1840 (Darmstadt, 1979), 104–10Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Roscher, Umrisse, 79.

⁶¹ Ibid., 79–80.

⁶² Heeren, A. H. L., Historical Treatises: The Political Consequences of the Reformation; The Rise, progress, and practical influence of political theories; The rise and growth of the continental interests of Great Britain (Oxford, 1836), 172–83Google Scholar. Roscher later criticized Rousseau for pointing the way to modern communism in combining criticisms of private property (in the Discourse on Inequality) with proposals for unlimited state power (in the Social Contract). See Roscher, Wilhelm, “Grundzüge einer nationalökonomischen Erklärung des Privateigenthums,” Berichte über die Verhandlungen der königlich sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig: Philologisch-Historische Classe, 4 (1852), 111–35, at 119 nGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁴ Roscher, Umrisse, 87–8.

⁶⁵ Ibid., 327–8, 331.

⁶⁶ Ibid., 452. For an example of Herder's use of the machine state metaphor see Herder, Johann Gottfried, “This Too a Philosophy of History for the Formation of Humanity,” in Herder, Philosophical Writings, ed. Forster, Michael N. (Cambridge, 2002), 272–358, at 316 Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Roscher, Umrisse, 452.

⁶⁸ Ibid., 88, 458.

⁶⁹ Ibid., 458.

⁷⁰ Ibid., 459–70.

⁷¹ Ibid., 455.

⁷² Roscher, “Betrachtungen über Socialismus und Communismus.”

⁷³ On the intellectual, legal and social dimensions of the “social question” see Kelley, Donald R. and Smith, Bonnie G., “What Was Property? Legal Dimensions of the Social Question in France (1789–1848),” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 128/3 (1984), 200–30Google Scholar; Beck, Hermann, The Origins of the Authoritarian Welfare State in Prussia: Conservatives, Bureaucracy, and the Social Question, 1815–70 (Ann Arbor, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moggach, Douglas and Browne, Paul Leduc, eds., The Social Question and the Democratic Revolution: Marx and the Legacy of 1848 (Ottawa, 2000)Google Scholar; Grimmer-Solem, The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 89–126.

⁷⁴ Roscher, “Betrachtungen,” 418.

⁷⁵ Ibid., 419.

⁷⁶ On the positive valuation of the Mittelstand by nineteenth-century German liberals see Sheehan, James J., German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago, 1978), 25–8Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Roscher, “Betrachtungen,” 422–32.

⁷⁸ Ibid., 433.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 436–47.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 445.

⁸¹ Ibid., 451. Blanc, Louis, Organisation du Travail (Paris, 1841)Google Scholar.

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⁸³ Roscher, “Betrachtungen,” 544.

⁸⁴ Ibid., 547, 549.

⁸⁵ Ibid., 549. This famous Hobbesian trope, it is worth noting, reappeared in Roscher's later depiction of Caesarism.

⁸⁶ Ibid., 12–13.

⁸⁷ Ibid., 19. On Wakefield see Semmel, Bernard, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy and the Empire of Free Trade and Imperialism 1750–1850 (Cambridge, 1970), 76–129 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; O'Brien, Karen, “Colonial Emigration, Public Policy, and Tory Romanticism, 1783–1830,” in Kelly, Duncan, ed., Lineages of Empire: The Historical Roots of British Imperial Thought (Oxford, 2009), 161–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁹ Roscher, Kolonien, 97.

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⁹² Roscher, “Grundzüge,” 116.

⁹³ Ibid., 116–7 n.

⁹⁴ Roscher, Politik, iii.

⁹⁵ Ibid., iv.

⁹⁶ For discussion, see the works listed in note 5 above.

⁹⁷ Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, “Cäsar und Cäsarismus,” in Bluntschli, , Staatswörterbuch in drei Bänden, 3 vols. (Zürich, 1872), 1: 387–92Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Treitschke argued that the permanent military domination of Cäsarismus was incompatible with the character of the German people in Heinrich von Treitschke, “Bundesstaat und Einheitsstaat” (1863), in Treitschke, Historische und politische Aufsätze, 6th edn, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1903), 2: 77–241, at 83; see also Heinrich von Treitschke, “Frankreichs Staatsleben und der Bonapartismus” (1865–71), in ibid., 3: 43–425.

⁹⁹ Frantz, Constantin, Die Naturlehre des Staates als Grundlage aller Staatswissenschaft (Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1870), 172–6Google Scholar. Social democrats, such as Wilhelm Liebknecht, claimed that Bismarck was copying Napoleonic Caesarism in using universal suffrage as a tool of reaction. See Liebknecht, Wilhelm, “On the Political Position of Social Democracy, Particularly with Regard to the Reichstag” (1869), in Liebknecht, , Wilhelm Liebknecht and German Social Democracy: A Documentary History, ed. Pelz, William A., trans. Erich Hahn (Westport, CT, 1994), 151–75Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Baehr, Caesar and the Fading of the Roman World, 226–32.

¹⁰¹ Roscher, Politik, 6.

¹⁰² Roscher was critical of Maine, Henry Sumner, Popular Government: Four Essays (London, 1885)Google Scholar; see Roscher, Politik, 454 n.

¹⁰³ Roscher, Politik, 311, 347–53.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 311.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., 454.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid., 454–5.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 320.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid., 418, 448.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., 333. For a near-contemporary worry about the transformation of the European Rechtsstaat into a Kopfzahlstaat see Burckhardt, Jacob, Historische Fragmente, aus dem Nachlass gesammelt von Emil Dürr (Stuttgart, 1942), 46 Google Scholar; for an English translation see Burckhardt, Judgments on History and Historians, trans. Harry Zohn (Indianapolis, 1999), 52.

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¹¹² Roscher, Politik, 332–3, 337 n.

¹¹³ Ibid., 440.

¹¹⁴ Most famously see Weber, Max, “The Profession and Vocation of Politics” (1919), in Weber, Political Writings, ed. Lassman, Peter and Speirs, Ronald (Cambridge, 1994), 340–44Google Scholar; but also see Bauer, Bruno, Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer Imperialismus (Chemnitz, 1882), 30 Google Scholar; Tönnies, Ferdinand, Der englische Staat und der deutsche Staat (Berlin, 1917), 50, 198Google Scholar. For commentary see Llanque, Demokratisches Denken im Krieg; and Hewitson, National Identity and Political Thought in Germany. Moisei Ostrogorski, who was, of course, an important source for Weber's essay, rarely used the term “Caesarism” in his discussion of England or America, though he did refer to the American party boss as “the Caesar of the Machine and of the city,” and discussed “Caesarean democracy” in his appendix “The Power of Social Intimidation as a Principle of Political Life.” See Ostrogorski, Moisei, Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties , vol. 2, The United States, ed. Lipset, Seymour Martin (New Brunswick, 1982), 202, 396–7Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ Roscher, Politik, 440.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 451.

¹¹⁷ Thomas Babington Macaulay, “Macaulay’s Opinion of the United States Government,” Southern Literary Messenger, 30/15 (1860), 225–8, at 227. Roscher cited similar prophesies about the dangers of mass democracy in the US made by Henry George, president George Buchanan, and the philosopher Herbert Spencer. Roscher, Politik, 452.

¹¹⁸ Roscher, Politik, 453–4.

¹¹⁹ Ibid., 441, 453.

¹²⁰ Ibid., 442–3. On this point, Roscher's view displays some similarities with Edouard Laboulaye's arguments, in the 1860s and 1870s, about the strength of the American system. See Sawyer, Stephen W., “An American Model for French Liberalism: The State of Exception in Edouard Laboulaye's Constitutional Thought,” Journal of Modern History, 85/4 (2013), 739–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹²² Ibid., 591 n.

¹²³ Ibid., 591–2.

¹²⁴ Ibid., 592; see Treitschke, “Die Freiheit,” in Treitschke, Historische und politische Aufsätze, 3: 3–42.

¹²⁵ Roscher, Politik, 592.

¹²⁶ Ibid., 595.

¹²⁷ Roscher, “Umrisse zur Naturlehre des Cäsarismus,” Abhandlungen der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 10 (1888), 641–753, at 642.

¹²⁸ Quidde, Ludwig, “Errinerungen: Im Kampf gegen Cäsarismus und Byzantinismus im Kaiserlichen Deutschland” (1926), in Quidde, Caligula: Schriften über Militarismus und Pazifismus, ed. and intro. Wehler, Hans Ulrich (Frankfurt am Main, 1977), 19–60 Google Scholar; Max Weber, “The Nation State and Economic Policy,” in Weber, Political Writings, 1–28, esp. 22, 24.

¹²⁹ Roscher, Politik, 694. Roscher referred to Frederick Harrison, Order and Progress (London, 1875). For discussion of Harrison's interest in Cromwell see Lang, Timothy, The Victorians and the Stuart Heritage: Interpretations of a Discordant Past (Cambridge, 1995), 208–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on Harrison see also Claeys, Gregory, Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850–1920 (Cambridge, 2012), 83–96 Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Roscher, Politik, 714.

¹³¹ Weber's methodological critique of Roscher can be found in Weber, Max, Roscher and Knies: The Logical Problems of Historical Economics, trans. Guy Oakes (New York and London, 1975)Google Scholar.

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