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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 09 August 2013
The first quarter of the fifteenth century, which saw, for the first time, the emergence of Florence as a seapower with its own fleets and ports, was particularly important in the history of the city. The conquest of Pisa in 1406, the purchase of Leghorn and Porto Pisano in 1421, and the launching and despatch of the first communal galleys in 1422, were all events that were acclaimed in Florence as jointly constituting the achievement of a cherished wish, and the birth of a new era of prosperity. Prior to this the Florentines had had to rely on the benevolence of the Pisans and the Sienese for their western outlets to the sea, and on foreign or on hired shipping for the carriage of their trade. Now they planned to launch a galley system comparable to that of the Venetians, to link up trading colonies throughout the Mediterranean, and to establish a reliable vehicle for exploiting the markets of Northern Europe and for bringing in the supplies of English wool so valuable to the Florentine woollen industry.
1 Although the Arno valley and Porto Pisano had always been the principal outlet for the trade of Florence, during periods of hostile relations with Pisa, the former had to make use of other Tuscan ports such as Talamone and Mutrone.
2 For an account of the Sea Consuls of the Pisan Republic, see: A. Schaube, op. cit., chaps. I–VI, and Fiaschi., R.Le Magistrature Pisane delle Acque, Pisa, 1939, pp. 23–31Google Scholar.
3 A. Schaube, op. cit., pp. 216–217.
A. Grunzweig, op. cit., p. 6, ‘A Pise cette autorité avait été exercée par des gens ayant en même temps une activité commerciale. Les Consuls de Florence furent au contraire des magistrate purement politiques.’
Lorenzo de' Medici frequently sent the same order to the Consuls of Pisa as he did to the Captain. (Mori, M. L., La Dominazione Fiorentina a Pisa dal 1451 al 1469, Pisa, 1936, p. 23.Google Scholar)
4 State Archives, Florence. Provvisioni 111, fos. 198v–200. Published by Müller, op. cit., pp. 279–281.
5 Ammirato, S., Istorie fiorentine, Florence, 1824, vol. VI., bk. XVIII, p. 420Google Scholar. Cosimo de' Medici was not one of the first Sea Consuls as has been sometimes thought (A. A. Ruddock, Italian merchants and shipping in Southampton, 1270–1600, Southampton, 1951, p. 62), but the presence of Niccolo da Uzzano, with his enormous reputation in the city and his unsurpassed position in the Albizzi regime, is even more indicative of the importance of the new office.
6 Provvisioni 113, fo. 51 (22 June 1423). See Appendix. There is no definite evidence as to whether this order was ever carried out and its existence has been ignored by all writers except Ammirato (op. cit. bk. XVIII, p. 443). Apart from Pagnini (op. cit., II, p. 31) who specifically refutes Ammirato's 1423 theory, Schaube (op. cit., p. 219), Masi (op. cit., p. xviii), Grunzweig (op. cit., p. 5) and Baruchello, M. (Livorno e il suo parto; origini, caratteristiche e vicende, Livorno, 1932, p. 45)Google Scholar date the move in 1426 without comment. One feels that this attitude is very largely due to the fact that the 1423 provvisione does not appear in the archives of the Sea Consuls and has therefore escaped the notice of Grunzweig and Müller.
7 ‘Diario di Felice Brancacci’ (ed. Castellacci, O.), Arch. Stor. Ital., 4, VIII, 1881, p. 160Google Scholar.
8 Provvisioni 116, fo. 32v (28 May 1426). The timetable of the Consuls is described in a letter of Leonardo di Filippo Strozzi of 4 January 1426, published by Manni, D. M., Osservazioni istoriche sopra i sigilli antichi de' secoli bassi, Florence, 1739, vol. II, p. 74Google Scholar.
9 Archivio dei Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 33 (23 Dec. 1429).
10 State Archives, Florence. Tratte 80, fos. 390 ff.
11 Provvisioni 127, fo. 122v (2 Aug. 1436).
12 Ibid., 131, fo. 44 (25 May 1440).
13 Ibid., 131, fo. 322 (28 Feb. 1441).
14 State Archives, Florence. Balie 26, fos. 42–43 (11 July 1444). The Cinque Governatori della città e contado di Pisa was an office first established in 1417 (Provvisioni 107, fo. 2, 26 Mar. 1417) and thereafter at irregular intervals to carry out essential administrative reforms in Pisa.
15 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 76 (27 Jan. 1445); Tratte 80, fos. 390 ff. The Five Governors took up residence in Pisa on 4 Sept. 1444 for one year (Balie 26, fos. 47v–48).
16 Balie 27, fos. 81v–83 (30 Jan. 1453).
17 Balie 27, fos. 127v–128 (3 July 1453).
18 Tratte 80, fos. 390 ff.
19 Provvisioni 145, fo. 55 (20 May 1454). In the period between 1454 and 1458 it became the practice again to appoint all six Consuls at the same time.
20 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 179 (26 Aug. 1458).
21 Tratte, 81, fos. 69 ff.
22 Provvisioni 150, fo. 161v (8 Dec. 1459).
23 Ibid., 151, fo. 336 (23 Jan. 1461). This is the official date of the suspension, but in fact the last Consuls for Florence were appointed for six months on 21 May 1459 (Tratte 81, fos. 69 ff.).
24 Provvisioni 153, fo. 38 (17 May 1462); Tratte 81, fos. 69 ff.
25 Tratte 81, fos. 69 ff.
26 Balie 31, fos. 74v–75v (29 Feb. 1472).
27 Ibid.
28 Provvisioni 165, fo. 1 (5 April 1474).
29 Ibid., 166, fo. 200v (17 Jan. 1475).
30 Tratte 82, fos. 76 ff.
31 Provvisioni 168, fo. 120 (23 Oct. 1477). The first six Consuls under the reorganised system took office on 1 Mar. 1478 (Tratte 82, fos. 76 ff.).
32 Provvisioni 171, fo. 17 (3 Aug. 1480).
33 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 239 (16 July 1481).
34 Ibid., Reg. III, fo. 243 (10 Mar. 1482).
35 Balie 39 fos. 62–71 (21–28 June 1491). State Archives, Pisa. Archivio dei Contratti 280, fo. 479. This volume in the Archivio dei Contratti at Pisa is made up of copies of documents relating to the Consoli del Mare in the fifteenth century. The originals of most of the material exist in Florence, but some have either been destroyed or are not easily traceable, and these copies provide some interesting and hitherto unstudied sidelights on the activities of the Consuls in Pisa.
36 Provvisioni 115, fos. 58v–61 (23 May 1425) and 137, fo. 208 (29 Nov. 1446).
37 The Provvisioni are full of such enactments passed by the Councils, frequently on the advice of the Consuls, but occasionally giving direct orders to them on the advice of some other authority.
38 Arch. Cons. del Mare, Reg. VII Pratiche. This section of the register gives the minutes of such discussions between 1465 and 1468.
39 Provvisioni 112, fo. 1 (8 April 1422). The Consuls were empowered to elect two ambassadors to go to Cairo and one to Constantinople.
Provvisioni 113, fo. 52v (22 June 1423). They were authorised to nominate consuls in ports throughout the known world. For further examples of the use of these powers, see Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 245 (19 Sept. 1482); the appointment of a Consul in the Levant. Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 253 (15 July 1495); the appointment of a Consul in Ragusa.
40 Provvisioni 139, fo. 3 (13 Apr. 1448). The decline of the Mercanzia in the fifteenth century was partly due to the Sea Consuls taking over much of its jurisdiction, particularly over reprisals. (A. Del Vecchio and E. Casanova, Le rappresaglie nei comuni medievali e specialmente in Firenze, Bologna, 1894, p. 83).
41 Provvisioni 120, fo. 44v (18 Mar. 1429) and fo. 175 (31 May 1429). The Consuls could not impose a fine of more than 100 florins unless six extra Consuls were selected to join them in judging the case.
42 Provvisioni 120, fo. 174 (31 May 1429).
43 Provvisioni 116, fo. 32v (28 May 1426); Provvisioni 122, fo. 275 (19 Nov. 1431) extended this transfer of power, although the Ten were still in existence. The Ten (Dieci di Pisa) had been established in 1406 as a Florentine advisory council for the Captain.
44 Provvisioni 114, fo. 10 (13 June 1424) and Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 11 (27 May 1426) The Sea Consuls of Pisa had the same defence jurisdiction in the area of Pisa as the Capitani della Parte Guelfa had in that of Florence.
45 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 61 (24 July 1442) and Provvisioni 141, 280v (22 Feb. 1450). It is often difficult to know during the fifteenth century which office was in fact responsible for these defences at any given time, as not only was there a certain amount of divided authority, but also the Signoria in an attempt to achieve maximum efficiency and security switched the task from one office to another with great rapidity. Besides the Consuls, both the Monte and the Canal officials had control at times. The latter seem to have exercised a general control over the work on the defences of Leghorn and Pisa from 1458 until 1477, when the Consuls resumed responsibility (Balie 32, passim.; Provvisioni 168, fo. 120 (1 Oct. 1477).
46 Provvisioni 120, fo. 247 (16 July 1429).
47 Provvisioni 115, fos. 58v–61 (23 May 1425).
48 Ibid., 137, fo. 208 (29 Nov. 1446).
49 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 22 (26 Oct. 1428). This is the first of a long series of directives to the Consuls of Pisa to equip guardships and provide marines for the defence of trade.
50 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 11 (27 May 1426).
51 Ibid., Reg. III, fo. 51 (28 Feb. 1440).
52 State Archives, Florence. Missive, 2da. Cancelleria, registri 13–17, passim.
53 Balie 39, fo. 63 (21 June 1492).
54 Provvisioni 132, fo. 70 (9 June 1441).
55 Provvisioni 116, fo. 32v (28 May 1426). This authority was previously held by the Ten of Pisa.
56 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fos. 86–89 (31 Aug. 1448).
57 Provvisioni 141, fos. 316v–317v (13 Mar. 1451) and Balie 39, fo. 90v (27 July 1491).
58 Provvisioni 146, fo. 270 (14 Dec. 1455); Provvisioni 166, fo. 20v (29 April 1475); Balie 39, fo. 64v (21 June 1491).
59 Pagnini, G. F., op. cit., II, p. 34Google Scholar; also Provvisioni 157, fo. 247 (13 Mar. 1467) and Provvisioni 180, fo. 100 (19 Dec. 1489).
60 R. Fiaschi, op. cit., pp. 19–20, 43–44; Caturegli, N., ‘Le condizioni delle chiese di Pisa nella seconda metà del secolo XV,’ Bollettino Storico Pisano, XIX, 1950, pp. 30–31Google Scholar.
61 Tozzetti, Targione, Relazione di alcuni viaggi, Florence, 1768, vol. II, p. 199Google Scholar; M. L. Mori, op. cit., pp. 67–68.
62 As early as 1421 the Signoria was given the power to decide on the division of the contado of Pisa into arable and pasture (Provvisioni III, fo. 14, 26 April 1421), and by 1438–39 laws were being enforced to prevent the pasturing of beasts within 4 miles of Pisa and in certain other parts of the contado (Provvisioni 129, fo. 294, 19 Feb. 1439). In 1447 the conversion of land from arable to pasture without special permission was forbidden (Provvisioni 138, fo. 90. 13 June 1447).
63 This is the view usually taken, based on the assumption that the interest of the Consuls in the state of the contado dated from 1475. See R. Fiaschi, op. cit. pp. 43–56; A. Schaube, op. cit. pp. 213 ff.; Borlandi, F., Documenti e studi per la storia del commercio e del diritto commerciale italiano, vol. VIIGoogle Scholar, Il libro di mercantie e di usanzi de' paesi, Turin, 1936, Introd. p. 1.
64 Provvision 121, fo. 83v (28 Nov. 1430).
65 Provvisioni 120, fo. 44v (13 Mar. 1429).
66 Ibid., 149, fo. 133v (31 Aug. 1458).
67 Missive, Prima Cancelleria, 41, fo. 12 (28 Feb. 1457).
68 Gentile, M. Lupo, ‘Le corporazioni delle arti a Pisa nel secolo XV,’ Annali della Scuola Normale, LX 1940 pp 198–199Google Scholar.
69 Provvisioni 112, fo. 245v (30 Dec. 1422).
70 M. L. Mori, op. cit., pp. 62–65; Balie 39, fo. 64 (21 June 1491).
71 Arch. Consoli del Mare Reg. III, fo. 28 (18 June 1429) and Provvisioni 130, fo. 195 (12 Sept. 1439).
72 Provvisioni 111, fos. 198v–200 (13 Dec. 1421).
73 Provvisioni 116, fo. 32v (27 May 1426). The stringency of this rule is indicated by Giovanni dell' Antella's efforts to get leave to return to Florence in 1465. He had to resort to a direct appeal to Piero de' Medici (Archivio Mediceo avanti il Principato, XXI, 33).
74 Provvisioni 119, fos. 189–191 (14 Sept. 1428). The rent was paid by the city treasurer of Pisa (Provvisioni 120, fo. 203v, 27 Feb. 1430) and was 100 florins a year. The palace was bought by the canal officials out of the funds of the Consuls in 1464 (Balie 32, fo. 8, 28 Dec. 1463).
75 Provvisioni 132, fo. 375v (28 Feb. 1442).
76 Ibid., 143, fo. 208 (25 Aug. 1452).
78 The lists in the Tratte of the holders of the office of Provveditore of the Consuls are not complete, but we know from other sources of at least two occasions when the office was suspended to save money (Balie 27, fo. 81, 30 Jan. 1453 and Balie 29, fo. 93, 12 Jan. 1459).
79 Provvisioni 143, fo. 76 (27 Apr. 1452).
80 Provvisioni 111, fos. 198v–200 (13 Dec. 1421). “… Item, quod ad electionem suprascriptorum Sex procedatur hoc modo, videlicet; quot quelibet infrascriptarum quinque maiorum Artium, videlicet, Kalismale, Cambii, Lane, Porte Sancte Marie, Medicorum et Spetiariorum, eligere debeat de hominibus sue Artis, popularibus et Guelfis, quator, quos ydoneos, probos et expertos esse crediderit et voluerit; et similiter quelibet quindecim Artium restantium, dempta Arte Iudicum et Notariorum, eligere de hominibus suis, popularibus et guelfis, duos quos magis ydoneos esse crediterit, in totum triginta; et quelibet ipsarum Artium suos electos referre debeat et presentare in scriptis dominis Prioribus artium et Vexillifero iustitie. Qui domini Priores et Vexillifer teneantur et debeant sua Collegia convocare, et inter se et eos in numeris sufficientibus congregatos, quemlibet predictorum, per dictas Artes relatorum, ponere ad parti turn singulariter et per se; et ille unus ex quatuor relatis per quemlibet quinque maiorum Artium predictarum, et similiter ille unus exquatuor relatis per quindecim Artes predictas, qui numero fabarum nigrarum in tali partito ceteris suis sotiis prevalebit (dummodo ipsorum quisque obtinere debeat in suo partito per xxv fabas nigras ex eis ad minus, et toties proponantur), quod ipse unus obtineat et prevaleat; et si concurrentes essent, iterum proponantur soli concurrentes, et prevalens ex eis accipiatur. Qui in totum sex sic electi intelligantur esse illi officiales Consules maris de quibus supra dicitur; eo salvo, quod de ipsis Sex non possit esse nisi unus de eadem stirpe, domo seu consorteria per lineam masculinam.
A. Sapori, op. cit., p. 83, has interpreted this as implying two ballots in which only those candidates who receive 25 votes or more in the first were able to pass on to the second, which was a straight vote. J. Müller, op. cit., having quoted the provvisione in full (pp. 279–281), says in his proemio ‘… Pel modo dell' elezione era stabilito che ognuna delle sette Arti maggiori scegliesse quattro uomini probi e popolani guelfi dell' arte sua; e le altre arti due per ciascuna; i quali tutti erano presentati ai Priori ed al Gonfaloniere di giustizia, che convocati i Collegi, eleggavano a fave bianche e nere i Consoli.’ G. F. Pagnini, op. cit. vol. II, p. 32, makes out that four of the six were elected from the major guilds and two from the others. The errors of both these last two were pointed out by Schaube (op. cit., p. 217), who also draws attention to the ambiguity in the method of election of the one Consul from the lesser guilds. The 30 candidates presented by the guilds were reduced to four by what can only have been some form of intermediate election of which no specific mention is made.
81 Provvisioni 112, fo. 141v (23 Oct. 1422).
82 Ibid., 113, fo. 142 (2 Oct. 1423).
83 This system of selecting officials by drawing names out of a bag was very popular in Florence. It gave the impression of complete fairness whilst enabling the ruling clique to control the appointments by screening the names that went into the ‘borsa.’
84 Provvisioni 116, fo. 32v (28 May 1426) and Provvisioni 121, fo. 132 (6 Jan. 1431).
85 A. Grunzweig, op. cit., p. 6.
86 G. Masi, op. cit., p. xviii.
87 A. Sapori, op. cit., p. 83.
88 The lists of the Consuls to be found in the Tratte (79, fos. 95 ff.) commence in the year 1426 with a definite statement that the method of selecting them was extraction from the borse. Further reference to the borsa system appears in Provvisioni 120, fo. 326 (28 Sept. 1429) and 125, fo. 209 (5 Feb. 1435).
89 A magona in the usual sense of the word was a company formed for the furtherance of shipping ventures, and in 1435 the Commune leased three galleys to a group of private contractors known as the Magona Vecchia for five years. Two of these galleys were to make voyages to Flanders and England and one to Constantinople. The contractors were to receive a loan of 15,000 florins in the first 3 years of the contract to assist them in the prelininary stages, a loan which was to be repaid in instalments as soon as the contract terminated. The ‘maionieri’ were responsible for sending two galleys to the North in 1436 and 1438, and then the contract was prematurely terminated with the consent of both parties in 1439. It has not been possible as yet to ascertain the names of any of the partners in the Magona Vecchia. Provvisioni 126, fo. 135 (30 July 1435); Bonolis, G., Sulle maone genovesi e su una maona fiorentina sconosciuta, Florence, 1907Google Scholar.
90 Provvisioni 126, fo, 207 (30 Aug. 1435).
91 Ibid., 131, fo. 322 (27 Feb. 1441).
92 Balie 26, fos. 82v–83 (27 Jan. 1445).
93 Provvisioni 145, fo. 55 (20 May 1454).
94 Ibid., 153, fo. 38 (17 May 1462). This must have had the effect of destroying the pattern of strict representation of the guilds.
95 Provvisioni 156, fo. 218 (12 Nov. 1465).
96 Balie 31, fo. 15 (24 July 1471).
97 Provvisioni 165, fo. 1 (5 April 1474).
98 Ibid., 168, fo. 120 (23 Oct. 1477).
99 Balie 39, fo. 71 (28 June 1491).
100 Cambi, G., Istorie fiorentine. Published by Ildefonso di Ser Luigi in Delizie degli eruditi toscani, Florence, 1785, vols XX–XXIII, at vol. I, p. 157Google Scholar.
101 Provvisioni 111, fos. 198v–200 (13 Dec. 1421).
102 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 9 (30 Dec. 1425). Cambi, , op. cit., vol. 1, p. 155Google Scholar states that 4,000 scudi were to be spent on the first galleys before March 1422. The 7,400 florins of the grant after 1425 was to be made up as follows: 2,000 from fines imposed by the Podestá and Capitano del Popolo of Florence for unauthorised carrying of arms, playing of forbidden games, infringements of curfew regulations, and the proceeds of the tax on those who renounced a public post; 900 florins from fines imposed by officials in the contado of Pisa; 2,190 florins from the Cassa delle Condotte of the funds set aside for the payment of mercenary garrisons; 1,900 florins from the same source of the funds set aside for the payment of castellans. None of these sources of income was stable; hence the need for the Camera to supplement the income of the Consuls after only a few years.
103 Between 28 June 1465 and 31 May 1469, the Consuls in Pisa received 57,200 lire (14,300 florins)—less than half the intended income (Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. VII, fos. 7 ff.).
104 The Tratta del Grano was the duty charged on the import and export of corn. It seems to have been used in Pisa as a form of reserve fund, which was appropriated in emergencies by any office.
105 The fines for danni dati were fines imposed for the infringement of the regulations governing the pasturing of animals, and for damage caused by such animals or otherwise to public works or private property.
106 Balie 26, fo. 127 (24 Mar. 1446) and fos. 151v–152v (20 Mar. 1447). A year earlier the Camera had attempted to avoid this 4,000 subsidy by cutting the pay of the garrisons throughout the dominions, and using the proceeds from that, and from a levy of 100 florins a month from the Opera del Duomo for supporting the Consuls (Balie 26, fo. 94, 8 Apr. 1445).
107 Balie 27, fo. 31 (17 Sept. 1452).
108 Auction prices for the ‘60’s are to be found in Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. VII. See also: Provvisioni 136, fo. 183v (28 Sept. 1445); 150, fo. 204v (4 Jan. 1460); 166, fo. 67v (7 June 1475); 166, fo. 69 (7 June 1475).
109 Pagnini, G. F., op. cit., vol. II, pp. 34–35Google Scholar; A. Schaube, op. cit., p. 218.
110 Provvisioni 120, fo. 247 (16 July 1429).
111 Provvisioni 126, fo. 137–138v (30 July 1435).
112 Arch, dei Contratti 280, fo. 78 (26 Aug. 1439).
113 Provvisioni 146, fo. 132v (14 June 1455).
114 Provvisioni 148, fo. 122 (6 May 1457).
115 Ibid., 149, fo. 126 (15 July 1458).
116 Balie 29, fo. 54 (6 Oct. 1458).
117 Provvisioni 150, fo. 84 (18 Aug. 1459).
118 Arch. Consoli del Mare, Reg. III, fo. 129 (15 June 1459).
119 Provvisioni 150, fo. 162v (8 Dec. 1459).
120 Ibid., 151, fo. 40v (25 Apr. 1460).
121 Ibid., 151, fo. 227v (17 Sept. 1460).
122 Ibid., 156, fo. 212 (12 Nov. 1465).
123 This grant is referred to in Provvisioni 177, fo. 43 (16 Aug. 1486).
124 Archivio Mediceo avanti il Principato, XXV, 298 (19 Jan. 1475)Google Scholar.
125 Provvisioni 171, fo. 20 (3 Aug. 1480).
