Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-2pzkn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-12T20:01:14.460Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Verifying the Unverifiable: Lessons from the Biological Weapons Convention

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Marie Isabelle Chevrier*
Affiliation:
John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 79JFK Street, Cambridge, MA 02138
Get access

Abstract

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is widely regarded as a treaty whose provisions are difficult to verify because of the paucity of measures to verify compliance within the treaty framework and the nature of the weapons themselves. Advances in biotechnology and their effect on the perceived military utility of biological weapons have focused international attention on this issue. This article examines the concepts of “adequate” and “effective” verification and argues that the treaty falls under the definition of adequate verification in the United States. For other countries, however, the lack of verification measures is of greater concern. The article describes measures that should be added to the BWC to detect violations and promote compliance with the treaty. These include improved methods of resolving allegations of noncompliance, increased reporting requirements for activities permitted under the treaty, greater openness in biological research, and inspections of laboratories and other facilities.

Type
Articles and Commentaries
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arms Control Today (1988a). INF Supplement. “Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics On The Elimination of Their Intermediate-range and Shorter-range Missiles.” Articles XI and VII. January/February.Google Scholar
Arms Control Today (1988b). “INF Verification—Effective or Adequate?” April.Google Scholar
Bartley, R., and Kucewicz, W. P. (1983). ‘“Yellow Rain’ and the Future of Arms Agreements.” Foreign Affairs 61:805826.Google Scholar
Caldwell, D. (1985). “The Standing Consultative Commission: Past Performance and Future Possibility,” In Potter, W. C. (ed.), Verification and Arms Control. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, pp. 217229.Google Scholar
Carnesale, A., and Haass, R. (1987). “Conclusions: Weighing the Evidence,” In Carnesale, A. and Haass, R. (eds.), Superpower Arms Control: Setting the Record Straight, Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, pp. 344346.Google Scholar
Cleminson, F. R. (1985). “Verification of Compliance in the Areas of Biological and Chemical Warfare,” In Potter, W. C. (ed.), Verification and Arms Control. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, pp. 125133.Google Scholar
Colby, W. E. (1983). “Verification of a Nuclear Freeze.” The Nuclear Freeze and Arms Control. Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Jan. 13-15, pp. 7375.Google Scholar
Duffy, G., Dalton, G., State, M., and Sartori, L. (1988). “Compliance and the Future of Arms Control.” Report of a project sponsored by the Center for International Security and Arms Control, Stanford University, and Global Outlook.Google Scholar
Douglass, J. D. Jr., and Livingstone, N. C. (1987). America The Vulnerable: The Threat of Chemical/Biological Warfare: The New Shape of Terrorism and Conflict. Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books, pp. 6067.Google Scholar
Dyson, F. (1984). “Weapons and Hope: III People.” The New Yorker (February 20).Google Scholar
Einhorn, R. J. (1981-82). “Treaty Compliance.” Foreign Policy 45 (Winter): 2947.Google Scholar
Gayler, N. (1986). “Verification, Compliance, and the Intelligence Process,” In Tsipis, K. D., Hafemeister, W. and Janeway, P. (eds.), Arms Control Verification: The Technologies That Make It Possible. Washington D.C.: Pergamom-Brassey's, pp. 37Google Scholar
Geissler, E. (1986). “A New Generation of Biological Weapons,” In Geissler, E. (ed.), Biological and Toxin Weapons Today. OxfordSIPRI: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament (1984). “A Quarter Century of Soviet Compliance Practices under Arms Control Commitments: 1958-1983.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, p.13.Google Scholar
Graybeal, S. N. (1983). “Appendix B: Negotiating an Accident Prevention Center: The Experience of the Standing Consultative Committee.” In Lewis, J. W. and Blacker, C. D. (eds.), Next Steps in the Creation of an Accidental Nuclear War Prevention Center. A Special Report of the Center for International Security and Arms Control, Stanford University, October,p. 31.Google Scholar
Graybeal, S. N., and Krepon, M. (1989). “Improving the Utility and Effectiveness of the Standing Consultative Commission,” In Krepon, M. and Umberger, M. (eds.), Verification and Compliance: A Problem-Solving Approach. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 239258.Google Scholar
Haass, R. N. (1987). “Verification and Compliance,” In Carnesale, A. and Haass, R. (eds.), Superpower Arms Control: Setting the Record Straight. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, pp. 303328.Google Scholar
Harris, E. D. (1987a). “The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention,” In Carnesale, A. and Haass, R. (eds.), Superpower Arms Control: Setting the Record Straight. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, pp.191219.Google Scholar
Harris, E. D. (1987b). “Sverdlovsk and Yellow Rain: Two Cases of Soviet Noncompliance?” International Security 11(4): 4195.Google Scholar
Hemsley, J. (1987). The Soviet Biochemical Threat to NATO: The Neglected Issue. London: MacMillan Press Ltd., pp. 23, 61-62.Google Scholar
Kaplan, M. M. (1983). “Another View.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (November): 27.Google Scholar
King, J. (1984). “The Threat and Fallacy of a Biological Arms Race.” Paper presented at the Symposium on Biological Research and Military Policy, American Association for the Advancement of Science.Google Scholar
Kincade, W. H. (1980). “Verification and SALT II,” In Humphrey, G. J. et. al. SALT II and American Security. Cambridge, Mass: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, Inc.Google Scholar
Krepon, M. (1985). “The Political Dynamics of Verification,” In Potter, W. C. (ed.). Verification and Arms Control. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, pp. 139141, 144-150.Google Scholar
Krepon, M. (1986). “The Politics of Treaty Verification and Compliance,” In Tsipis, K., Hafemeister, D. W. and Janeway, P. (eds.), Arms Control Verification: The Technologies That Make It Possible. Washington, D.C.: Pergamom-Prassey's, pp. 2022.Google Scholar
Leonard, J. (1986). “Reviewing the Biological Weapons Convention.” Issues in Science and Technology, (Fall): 1213.Google Scholar
Lowenthal, M. M., and Wit, J. S. (1985). “The Politics of Verification,” In Potter, W.C (ed.), Verification and Arms Control. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, pp. 152168.Google Scholar
McDermott, J. (1987). The Killing Winds. New York: Arbor House.Google Scholar
Meselson, M. S. (1970). “Behind the Nixon Policy for Chemical and Biological Warfare.” The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (January): 2334.Google Scholar
Meselson, M. S. (1988). “The Biological Weapons Convention and the Sverdlovsk Anthrax Outbreak of 1979.” Journal of the Federation of American Scientists 41(7): 16.Google Scholar
Meyer, S. M. (1984). “Verification and Risk in Arms Control.” International Security 8(4):126.Google Scholar
Nixon, R. M. (1971). “Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs. November 25, 1969.” Public Papers of the Presidents: Richard Nixon, 1969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 968969.Google Scholar
Nye, J. S. Jr., (1986). “Farewell to Arms Control?” Foreign Affairs 65(185): 120.Google Scholar
Perle, R. N. (1980). “What is Adequate Verification,” In Humphrey, G. J. et. al. SALT II and American Security. Cambridge, Mass: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, Inc., pp. 5365.Google Scholar
Piller, C., and Yamamoto, K. R. (1989). Gene Wars. New York: Beech Tree Books.Google Scholar
President's Report to the Congress on Soviet Noncompliance with Arms Control Agreements. There are three of these reports dated January 23, 1984, February 1, 1985 and December 23, 1985. Washington, D.C.: The White House.Google Scholar
The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1987). Second Edition, Unabridged. New York: Random House p. 2114.Google Scholar
Reagan, R., (1983). Letter of transmittal to Congress, “U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency: 1982 Annual Report.” February 9.Google Scholar
Rowell, W. F. (1986). Arms Control Verification: A Guide to Policy Issues for the 1980's. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger.Google Scholar
Schear, J. A. (1985). “Cooperative Measures of Verification: How Necessary? How Effective?” In Potter, W. C. (ed.), Verification and Arms Control. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, pp. 735.Google Scholar
Schear, J. A. (1989). “Compliance Diplomacy in a Multilateral Setting,” In Krepon, M. and Umberger, M. (eds.), Verification and Compliance: A Problem-Solving Approach. Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, pp. 259281.Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1984a). Choice and Consequence. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, p. 244.Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1984b). Confidence in Crisis. International Security 8(4): 5566.Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1980). The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Originally published 1960.Google Scholar
Scribner, R. A., Ralston, T. J., and Metz, W. D. (1985). Verification Challenge: Problems and Promise of Strategic Nuclear Arms Control Verification. Boston: Birkhauser.Google Scholar
Shevardnadze, E. A. (1987). Statement at the United Nations Conference on Disarmament in Geneva, August 6.Google Scholar
SIPRI, Swedish International Peace Research Institute (1973). The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons Today. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.Google Scholar
SIPRI (1975). The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Vol. VI: The Technical Aspects of Early Warning and Verification. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell. p. 25.Google Scholar
Storella, M. C. (1984). Poisoning Arms Control: The Soviet Union and Chemical/Biological Weapons. Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, Inc., p. 13.Google Scholar
United Nations (1986a). “Second Review Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction”, September, 1986, (hereinafter cited as “Second Review Conference”), Summary Record of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Meetings, Remarks of the representatives from The Federal Republic of Germany, (BWC/CONF.II/SR.3, paragraph 26, p. 5.), Norway, (BWC/CONF.II/SR.4, paragraphs 15 and 16 p.5), Pakistan (ibid., paragraph 39, p. 10), New Zealand (BWC/CONF.II/SR.5, paragraphs 6 and 7, pp. 2-3), Finland (ibid., paragraph 22, p. 5) Austria (ibid., paragraph 32, p. 7) and China (ibid., paragraph 44, p. 8).Google Scholar
United Nations. (1986b). “Second Review Conference.” Final Declaration, (BWC/CONF.II/13/2) Article V.Google Scholar
U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (1972). Documents on Disarmament. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological, (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (1976). Verification: The Critical Element of Arms Control. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, pp. 23;Google Scholar
U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (1983). Annual Report, 1982. Washington, D.C.:United States Government Printing Office, pp. 5253;Google Scholar
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services (1974). Review of Arms Control and Disarmament Activities: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Arms Control and Disarmament. 92nd Congress, 2nd Session. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, p.5.Google Scholar
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence (1986) Subcommittee on Oversight and Evaluation. “Testimony on Biological and Toxin Weapons.” Feith, Douglas J., Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Negotiation Policy, Aug. 8, p. 11.Google Scholar
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations (1974). Hearings on the Prohibition of Chemical and Biological Weapons. 93rd Congress, 2nd Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 1516.Google Scholar
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations (1979). SALT II Treaty, Hearings. Part 2.96th Congress, 1st Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 241.Google Scholar
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations (1988). The INF Treaty. Hearings on the Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-range and Shorter-range Missiles, Part 4. 100th Congress, 2nd SessionWashington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of State (1978). “SALTI Compliance and SALT II Verification.” Selected Documents No. 7. Bureau of Public Affairs, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
U.S. General Advisory Committee on Arms Control and Disarmament (1984). A Quarter Century of Soviet Compliance Practices Under Arms Control Commitments: 1958-1983. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Wright, S. and Sinsheimer, R. L. (1983). “Recombinant DNA and Biological Warfare.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (November): pp. 2026Google Scholar