Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-wq484 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-29T09:03:52.263Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The West Mouth Neolithic Cemetery, Niah Cave, Sarawak

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2013

Lindsay Lloyd-Smith*
Affiliation:
Southeast Asian Archaeology, Institute for East Asian Studies, Sogang University, 35 Backbeom-ro, Mapo-Gu, Seoul, 121–472, Korea Email: lloyd-smith@cantab.net

Abstract

Excavations between 1954 and 1967 in the West Mouth, Niah Cave (Sarawak) uncovered the largest Neolithic cemetery in South-east Asia with over 150 burials. Subsequent work at the site in the 1970s and most recently by the Niah Caves Project (2000–2004) brought the total to 170, comprising 89 primary burials and 79 secondary burials, and two ‘multiple’ burials. The size of cemetery and the scale of the archaeological data are unprecedented in South-east Asian Neolithic archaeology and offer a unique opportunity to investigate the cemetery's origins, development, and history in detail. Analysis of the demographic structure of discrete spatial burial groups within the cemetery and their short term burial sequences are combined to interpret the history of changing burial practice in terms of different social/settlement groups using the cave as a communal place of burial. A new suite of radiocarbon dates are used to date the West Mouth Neolithic cemetery to between 1500 and 200 bc. Six phases of burial are defined and the associated transitions of ritual practices are discussed. In particular, a transition from primary to secondary burial occurred around c. 1000 bc, which subsequently intensified into the practice of cremation. This process was likely associated/fuelled by an intensification of economic activity to support more elaborate secondary burial funerals. Two further cycles of primary and secondary burial followed, before the main cemetery ceased c. 200 bc. A Post-Neolithic phase of possibly 14 burials (five primary flexed burials and nine secondary burials) is proposed to follow, which while continuing aspects of Neolithic mortuary behaviour, is considered on isotopic data to represent a group of hunter-gatherers living in a closed-canopy environment

Résumé

Cimetière néolithique de West Mouth, grottes de Niah, Sarawak, de Lindsay Lloyd-Smith

Des fouilles entre 1954 et 1967 à West Mouth, grottes de Niah (Sarawak) ont mis au jour le plus grand cimetière néolithique connu de l'Asie du sud-est avec plus de 150 sépultures. Des travaux ultérieurs dans les années 1970 et dans le cadre du projet des grottes de Niah (2002–2004) ont fait monter le total à 168, il comprend 89 sépultures primaires, 77 secondaires et deux ‘multiples’. La taille du cimetière et l’étendue des données archéologiques n'ont pas de précédent dans l'archéologie néolithique de l'Asie du sud-est et offrent une unique opportunité d'examiner en détail les origines du cimetière, son évolution et son histoire. L'analyse de la structure démographique de groupes d'inhumation spatiaux distincts à l'intérieur du cimetière et leurs séquences d'inhumations de courte durée sont combinées pour interpréter l'histoire des changements dans les pratiques funéraires en terme de groupes sociaux/d'occupation différents utilisant la grotte en commun. Une nouvelle série de datations au radiocarbone du cimetière néolithique de West Mouth, grottes de Niah se situe entre 1500 et 200 av.J.-C. cal. Nous définissons six phases d'inhumation et discutons des transitions associées aux pratiques rituelles. En particulier eut lieu, aux environs de 1000 av.J.-C. cal, une transition d'inhumation primaire à secondaire qui par la suite s'intensifia en une pratique de crémation. Ce processus était probablement associé à et alimenté par une intensification de l'activité économique afin de pourvoir à des enterrements d'inhumations secondaires plus élaborés. Deux cycles supplémentaires d'inhumations primaires et secondaires suivirent avant que le cimetière principal ne cesse d’être utilisé vers 200 av.J.-C. cal. Nous proposons une phase post-néolithique de 14 inhumations éventuelles qui, tout en conservant certains aspects du comportement mortuaire néolithique est considérée, au vu des données isotopiques, comme représentant un groupe de chasseurs cueilleurs vivant dans un environnement de canopée fermée

Zussamenfassung

Das neolithische Gräberfeld vom West Mouth, Niah Höhle, Sarawak (Borneo), von Lindsay Lloyd-Smith

Ausgrabungen im West Mouth der Niah Höhle, Sarawak, zwischen 1954 und 1967 legten das mit über 150 Bestattungen größte bekannte neolithische Gräberfeld in Südostasien frei. Nachfolgende Arbeiten in den 1970er Jahren und durch das Niah-Höhlen-Projekt zwischen 2001 und 2004 erhöhten die Zahl auf 168 Bestattungen, davon 89 Primär-, 77 Sekundär- und zwei ,,Mehrfachbestattungen“. Die Größe des Gräberfelds und der Umfang der archäologischen Daten sind beispiellos in der Archäologie des Neolithikums Südostasiens, und sie bieten die einmalige Gelegenheit, den Ursprung, die Entwicklung und die Geschichte des Gräberfelds detailliert zu untersuchen. Die Untersuchung der demographischen Struktur räumlich separater Bestattungsgruppen innerhalb des Gräberfelds und deren kurzzeitigen Bestattungssequenzen werden kombiniert um die Geschichte des Wandels von Bestattungspraktiken zu interpretieren mit Bezug auf unterschiedliche Sozial- bzw. Besiedlungsgruppen, die die Höhle für gemeinschaftliche Bestattungen nutzten. Eine neue Reihe von Radiokarbondaten für das neolithische Gräberfeld vom West Mouth liefert Daten zwischen 1500 und 200 cal bc. Es können sechs Bestattungsphasen unterschieden werden; die damit verbundenen Änderungen im Bestattungsritual werden diskutiert. Insbesondere kann festgestellt werden, dass ein Wechsel von primärer zu sekundärer Bestattung um ca. 1000 cal bc stattfand, der schließlich in die Praxis der Leichenverbrennung mündete. Dieser Prozess war vermutlich verknüpft mit und/oder verstärkt durch eine Intensivierung ökonomischer Aktivitäten um aufwändigere sekundäre Bestattungsrituale zu ermöglichen. Zwei weitere Zyklen von primären und sekundären Bestattungen folgten bis schließlich ab etwa 200 cal bc das hauptsächliche Gräberfeld nicht mehr genutzt wurde. Eine nachneolithische Phase von möglicherweise 14 Bestattungen wird vorgeschlagen, welche, obwohl sie Aspekte der neolithischen Begräbnispraktiken fortführt, aufgrund von Isotopendaten einer Gruppe von Jäger-Sammlern zugeschrieben wird, die in einer ,,closed-canopy environment“ (Umwelt mit geschlossenem Baumkronendach) lebte

Resumen

El cementerio Neolítico de la Boca Oeste de la Cueva Niah, Sarawak, por Lindsay Lloyd-Smith

Las excavaciones desarrolladas entre 1954 y 1967 en la Boca Oeste de la cueva de Niah (Sarawak) permitieron descubrir el mayor cementerio neolítico del sureste de Asia, con más de 150 enterramientos. Los trabajos posteriores en la década de 1970 y el Niah Caves Project (2001–2004) aumentó su número a 168, abarcando 89 enterramientos primarios, 77 secundarios, y dos enterramientos “múltiples”. El tamaño del cementerio y la escala de los datos arqueológicos no tienen precedente en la arqueología de época neolítica del sureste asiático y ofrecen una oportunidad única para investigar en detalle los orígenes del cementerio, su desarrollo e historia. El análisis de la estructura demográfica de grupos de enterramientos cronológicamente cortos se combina para interpretar la evolución de las prácticas funerarias como resultados de diferencias sociales/grupos de asentamiento que usan la cueva comunalmente. Una nueva batería de dataciones radiocarbónicas procedentes de la boca oeste del cementerio neolítico se extiende entre el 1500 y el 200 cal bc. Se definen seis fases de enterramiento y se discuten las transiciones entre las prácticas rituales asociadas. En particular, se produce una transformación de enterramientos primarios a secundarios alrededor de c. 1000 cal bc que posteriormente se intensifica con la práctica de la cremación. Este proceso estuvo posiblemente asociado y avivado por una intensificación de la actividad económica que permitía costear la celebración de rituales de enterramiento secundario más complejos. Se produjeron otros dos nuevos ciclos de enterramientos primarios y secundarios, antes de que el cementerio principal cesase en torno al c. 200 cal bc. Se propone una fase postneolítica compuesta posiblemente por 14 enterramientos, en la que a pesar de que se mantienen comportamientos funerarios neolíticos, los análisis isotópicos muestran a grupos de cazadores-recolectores que habitan entornos de bosque cerrado

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adi Taha. 1985. The re-excavation of the rockshelter of Gua Cha, Ulu Kelatan, West Malaysia. Federation Museums Journal 30, 1134Google Scholar
Barker, G. (ed.). 2013. Rainforest Foraging and Farming in Island Southeast Asia: the archaeology of the Niah Caves, Sarawak. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Barker, G., Richards, M. 2013. Foraging–farming transitions in Island Southeast Asia. Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory 20(2), 256280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, G., Janowski, M. (eds). 2011. Why Cultivate? Anthropological and Archaeological Approaches to Foraging-Farming transition in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Barker, G., Badang, D., Barton, H., Beavitt, P., Bird, M., Daly, P., Doherty, C., Gilbertson, D., Glover, I., Hunt, C., Manser, J., McLaren, S., Paz, V., Pyatt, B., Reynolds, T., Rose, J., Rushworth, G., Stephens, M. 2001. The Niah Cave Project: the second (2001) season of fieldwork. Sarawak Museum Journal 56, 37119Google Scholar
Barker, G., Barton, H., Beavitt, P., Bird, M., Daly, P., Doherty, C., Gilbertson, D., Hunt, C., Krigbaum, J.S., Lewis, H., Manser, J., McClaren, S., Paz, V., Pipper, P., Pyatt, B., Rabett, R., Reynolds, T., Rose, J., Rushworth, G., Stephens, M. 2002a. Prehistoric foragers and farmers in south-east Asia: renewed investigations at the Niah Cave, Sarawak. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 68, 147164CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, G., Barton, H., Bird, M., Cole, F., Daly, P., Gilbertson, D., Hunt, C., Krigbaum, J., Lampert, C., Lewis, H., Lloyd-Smith, L., Manser, J., Menotti, F., Paz, V., Piper, P., Pyatt, B., Rabett, R., Reynolds, T., Stephens, M., Thompson, G., Trickett, M., Whittaker, P. 2002b. The Niah Cave Project: the third (2002) season of fieldwork. Sarawak Museum Journal 57, 87177Google Scholar
Barker, G., Barton, H., Bird, M., Cole, F., Daly, P., Dykes, A., Gilbertson, D., Hunt, C., Lewis, H., Lloyd-Smith, L., Manser, J., McLaren, S., Menotti, F., Paz, V., Piper, P., Pyatt, B., Rabett, R., Reynolds, T., Stephens, M., Thompson, G., Trickett, M. 2003. The Niah Cave Project: the fourth (2003) season of fieldwork. Sarawak Museum Journal 58, 45199Google Scholar
Barker, G., Lloyd-Smith, L., Barton, H., Cole, F., Hunt, C., Piper, P., Rabett, R., Paz, V., Szabó, K. 2011. Foraging-farming transitions at the Niah Caves, Sarawak, Borneo. Antiquity 85, 492509CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barton, H., Victor, P., Carlos, J. forthcoming. Plant remains. In G. Barker, D. Gilbertson, & T. Reynolds (eds), The Archaeology of the Niah Caves, Sarawak: Excavations 1954–2004, Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Bedford, S., Spriggs, M., Regenvanu, M. 2006. The Teouma Lapita site and the early human settlement of the pacific. Antiquity 80, 812828CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellina, B., Glover, I. 2004. The archaeology of early contact with India and the Mediterranean World, from the forth century bc to the forth century ad. In I. Glover & P. Bellwood (eds), Southeast Asia. From Prehistory to History, 6888. London: RoutledgeCurzonGoogle Scholar
Bellina, B., Guillaumel, E., Favereau, A. 2012. De la préhistoire à l'histoire: Caractérisation préliminaire des poteries marqueurs d’échanges en mer de Chine meridionale a la fin de la préhistoire. Archipel 84, 733CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, P. 1997. Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago (2 edn). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, P. 2005. First Farmers. The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, P., Koon, P. 1989. ‘Lapita colonists leave boats unburned!’ The question of Lapita links with Island Southeast Asia. Antiquity 63, 613622CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellwood, P., Omar, M. 1980. Trade patterns and political development in Brunei and adjacent areas a.d. 700–1500. Brunei Museum Journal 4, 5180Google Scholar
Bentley, R.A., Buckley, H., Spriggs, M., Bedford, S., Ottley, C., Nowell, G., Macpherson, C., Pearson, D.G. 2007. Lapita migrants in the Pacific's oldest cemetery: isotopic analysis at Teouma, Vanuatu. American Antiquity 72, 645656CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blench, R. 2011. Was there an Austroasiatic presence in island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian expansion? Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 30, 133144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blench, R. 2012. Almost everything you believed about the Austronesians isn't true. In M.L. Tjoa-Bonatz, A. Reinecke & D. Bonatz (eds), Crossing Borders: selected papers from the 13th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, vol. 1, 122–42. Singapore: National University of Singapore PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloch, M. 1974. Placing the Dead. London: PaladinGoogle Scholar
Brooks, S.T., Brooks, R.H. 1968. Arm position as correlated with sex determination in the Niah Cave extended burial series, Sarawak, Malaysia. Sarawak Museum Journal 16, 6774Google Scholar
Brooks, S.T., Helgar, R., Brooks, R.H. 1977. Radiocarbon dating and palaeoserology of a selected burial series from the Great Cave of Niah, Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia. Asian Perspectives 20, 2131Google Scholar
Cole, F. 2007. Materiality in Mortuary Practice: Approaches to the Study of Ceramics in the West Mouth of Niah Cave, Borneo. Unpublished MPhil Dissertation: University of CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Cole, F. 2012. Communities of the Dead: practice as an indicator of group identity in the Neolithic and Metal Age burial caves of Niah, North Borneo. Unpublished PhD Thesis: University of CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Cole, F., Daly, P. forthcoming. The ceramics from the West Mouth and Lobang Hangus. In G. Barker, D. Gilbertson & T. Reynolds (eds), The Archaeology of the Niah Caves, Sarawak: Excavations 1954–2004, Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Datan, I. 1993. Archaeological excavations at Gua Sireh (Serian) and Lubang Angin (Gunung Mulu National Park), Sarawak, Malaysia. Special Monograph 6/Sarawak Museum Journal 45, 1192Google Scholar
Denham, T. 2004. The roots of agriculture and arboriculture in New Guinea: looking beyond Austronesian expansion, Neolithic packages and indigenous origins. World Archaeology 36(4), 610620CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, T. 2013. Early farming in Island Southeast Asia: an alternative hypothesis. Antiquity 87, 250257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doherty, C., Beavitt, P., Kurui, E. 2000. Recent observations of rice temper in pottery from Niah and other sites in Sarawak. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20(4), 147152Google Scholar
Fox, R. 1970. The Tabon Caves. Manila: National Museum of the PhilippinesGoogle Scholar
Harrisson, B. 1958. Niah's Lobang Tulang (‘Cave of Bones’). Sarawak Museum Journal 8(12), 596619Google Scholar
Harrisson, B. 1967. A classification of Stone Age burials from Niah Great Cave, Sarawak. Sarawak Museum Journal 15(30–31 n.s.), 126200Google Scholar
Harrisson, T. 1957. The Great Cave of Niah: a preliminary report on Borneo prehistory. Man 57, 161166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrisson, T. 1958. The Caves of Niah: a history of prehistory. Sarawak Museum Journal 8(12), 549595Google Scholar
Harrisson, T. 1959. New archaeological and ethnographic results from Niah Caves, Sarawak. Man 59, 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrisson, T. 1971. Prehistoric double-spouted vessels excavated from Niah Caves, Borneo. Journal of the Malay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 44(2), 3578Google Scholar
Hazenbroek, H., Abang Morshidi, A.K. 2000. National Parks of Sarawak. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo)Google Scholar
Hertz, R. 1907. Contribution a une etude sur la representation collective de la mort. Année Sociologique 10, 48137Google Scholar
Higham, C.F.W. 2002. Early Cultures of Southeast Asia. Bangkok: River BooksGoogle Scholar
Higham, C.Higham, T. 2009. A new chronological framework for prehistoric Southeast Asia, based on a Bayesian model from Ban Non Wat. Antiquity 83, 1254CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, C.F.W., Guangmao, X., Qiang, L. 2011. The prehistory of a Friction Zone: first farmers and hunters-gatherers in Southeast Asia. Antiquity 85, 529543CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, C.F.W., Kijngam, A. 2010. The Origins of Civilization of Angkor. Volume 4. The Excavations of Ban Non Wat: the Neolithic Occupation. Bangkok: Fine Arts DepartmentGoogle Scholar
Higham, C., Thosarat, R. 2004. The Origins of Civilization of Angkor. Volume 1. The Excavations of Ban Lum Khao. Bangkok: Fine Arts DepartmentGoogle Scholar
Higham, C., Thosarat, R. 2012. Prehistoric Thailand: from Prehistory to Sukhothai. Bangkok: River BooksGoogle Scholar
Hoskins, J. (ed.). 1996. Headhunting and the Social Imagination in Southeast Asia. Stanford: Stanford University PressGoogle Scholar
Hung, H.-C. 2008. Migration and Cultural Interaction in Southern Coastal China and the Northern Philippines, 3000 bc to ad 100: the early history of the Austronesian speaking populations. Unpublished PhD Thesis: Australian National UniversityGoogle Scholar
Hung, H.-C., Iizuka, Y., Nguyen, K.D., Bellina, B., Silapanth, P., Dizon, E., Santiago, R., Datan, I., Manton, J. 2007. Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(50), 1974519750CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hung, H.-C., Carson, M.T., Bellwood, P., Campos, F.Z., Piper, P.J., Dizon, E., Bolunia, M.J.L.A., Oxenham, M., Chi, Z. 2011. The first settlement of Remote Oceania: the Philippines to the Marianas: supplementary information on radiocarbon dating of the Nagsabaran site. Antiquity 85, 909926CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, C., Rushworth, G. 2005. Cultivation and human impact at 6000 cal yr b.p. in tropical lowland forest at Niah, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Quaternary Research 64, 460468CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iizuka, Y., Bellwood, P., Datan, I., Hung, H.-C. 2005. Mineralogical studies of the Niah West Mouth jade ling-ling-o. Sarawak Museum Journal 83, 1929Google Scholar
Jee, C.L. 1959. Establishing geographical position and cave height at Niah. Sarawak Museum Journal 9, 134135Google Scholar
King, C.L., Bentley, R.A., Tayles, N., Vidarsdottir, U., Nowell, G., Macpherson, C. 2013. Moving peoples changing diets: isotopic differences highlight migration and subsistence changes in the Upper Mun River Valley, Thailand. Journal of Archaeological Science 40, 16811688CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krigbaum, J.S. 2001. Human Paleodiet in Tropical Southeast Asia: Isotopic Evidence from the Niah Cave and Gua Cha. Unpublished PhD Thesis: New York UniversityGoogle Scholar
Krigbaum, J.S. 2005. Reconstructing human subsistence in the West Mouth (Niah Cave, Sarawak) burial series using stable isotope of carbon. Asian Perspectives 44(1), 7389CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krigbaum, J.S., Manser, J. 2005. The West Mouth burial series from the Niah Cave: past and present. In Z. Majid (ed.), The Perak Man and other Prehistoric Skeletons of Malaysia, 175206. Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains MalaysiaGoogle Scholar
Larson, G., Cucchi, T., Masakatsu, F., Matisoo-Smith, E., Robins, J., Anderson, A., Rolett, B., Spriggs, M., Dolman, G., Kim, T.-H., Thuy, N.T.D.T., Randi, E., Doherty, M., Due, R.A., Bollt, R., Djubiantono, T., Griffin, B., Intoh, M., Keane, E., Kirch, P., Li, K.-T., Morwood, M., Pedrina, L., Piper, P., Rabett, R., Schooter, P., Bergh, G.D.v.d., West, E., Wickler, S., Yuan, J., Cooper, A., Dobney, K. 2007. Phylogeny and ancient DNA of Sus provides insights in Neolithic expansion in Island Southeast Asia and Oceania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(12), 48344839CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lloyd-Smith, L. 2009. Chronologies of the Dead: later prehistoric burial practice at the Niah Caves, Sarawak. Unpublished PhD Thesis: University of CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Lloyd-Smith, L. 2011. Reclassification of the later prehistoric burials in the West Mouth, Niah Cave. Sarawak Museum Journal 88, 53152Google Scholar
Lloyd-Smith, L. 2013. Early Holocene burial practice at Niah Cave, Sarawak. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory AssociationCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd-Smith, L., Cole, F. 2010. The jar-burial tradition in the West Mouth of Niah Cave, Sarawak: burial histories, social identities, and the changing perceptions of pottery and death. In B. Bellina, J. Wisseman Christie, L. Bacus & T.O. Pryce (eds), Fifty Years of Archaeology in Southeast Asia: essays in honour of Ian Glover, 115127. Bangkok: River BooksGoogle Scholar
Lloyd-Smith, L., Daly, P., Krigbaum, J., Barton, H., Cole, F., Hunt, C., Manser, J., Reynolds, T. 2013. c. 4000–2000 Years Ago: Austronesian Farming Societies? In Barker (ed.), 2013Google Scholar
Manser, J. 2005. Morphological Analysis of the Human Burial Series at Niah Cave. Unpublished PhD Thesis: New York UniversityGoogle Scholar
Metcalf, P., Huntington, R. 1991. Celebrations of Death: the anthropology of mortuary ritual. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noone, H.D. 1939. Report on a new Neolithic site in Ulu Kelantan. Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums 15, 170174Google Scholar
O'Connor, S. 2006. Unpacking the Island Southeast Asian Neolithic cultural package, and finding local complexity. In E.A. Bacus, I. Glover & V.C. Piggot (eds), Uncovering Southeast Asia's Past: Selected papers from the 10th International conference of the European Association of Southeast Asia Archaeologists, 74–87. Singapore: National University of SingaporeGoogle Scholar
Scott, R.A., Buckley, H., Spriggs, M., Valentine, F., Bedford, S. 2010. Identification of the first reported Lapita cremation in the Pacific Islands using archaeological forensic and contemporary burning evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 901909CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seiveking, G. 1954. Excavations at Gua Cha, Kelantan. 1954. Part I. Federation Museums Journal 12, 75–138Google Scholar
Soares, P., Trejaut, J.A., Loo, J.-H., Hill, C., Mormima, M., Lee, C.-L., Chen, Y.-M., Hudjashov, G., Forster, P., Macaulay, V., Bulbeck, D., Oppenheimer, S., Lin, M., Richards, M. 2008. Climate change and post-glacial human dispersals in Southeast Asia. Molecular Biology & Evolution 25(6), 12091218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solheim, W.G. II. 1959. Introduction to Sa-Huynh. Asian Perspectives 3, 97108Google Scholar
Solheim, W.G., Harrisson, B., Wall, L. 1959. Niah ‘Three Colour Ware’ and related prehistoric pottery from Borneo. Asian Perspectives 3, 167176Google Scholar
Sørensen, P., Hatting, T. 1967. Archaeological Investigations in Thailand. Vol.II Ban Kao, Part 1: The Archaeological Materials from the Burials. Copenhagen: MunksgardGoogle Scholar
Sprague, R. 2005. Burial Terminology: a guide for Researchers. Oxford: Alta Mira PressGoogle Scholar
Spriggs, M. 1989. The dating of the island Southeast Asian Neolithic: an attempt at chromometric hygiene and linguistic correlation. Antiquity 63(1), 587613CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spriggs, M. 1997. The Island Melanasians. Oxford: BlackwellGoogle Scholar
Spriggs, M. 2003. Chronology of the Neolithic transition in Island Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific: a view from 2003. Review of Archaeology 24(2), 5780Google Scholar
Spriggs, M. 2011. Archaeology and the Austronesian expansion: where are we now? Antiquity 85, 510528CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szabó, K., Cole, F., Lloyd-Smith, L., Barker, G., Hunt, C., Piper, P., Cameron, J., Doherty, C. 2013. The ‘Metal Age’ at the Niah Caves, c. 2000–500 years ago. In Barker (ed.) 2013Google Scholar
Thiel, B. 1990. Excavations at Arku Cave, Northeast Luzon, Philippines. Asian Perspectives 27(2), 229264Google Scholar
Tillotson, D. 1989. Mortuary patterning and the evolution of the rice ancestors. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 9, 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentine, B., Kamenov, G., Krigbaum, J. 2008. Reconstructing Neolithic groups in Sarawak, Malaysia. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 14631473CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentin, F., Bedford, S., Buckley, H., Spriggs, M. 2010. Laptia burial practices: evidence for complex body and bone treatment at the Teuoma cemetery, Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific. Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology 5, 212235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentin, F., Spriggs, M., Bedford, S., Buckley, H. 2011. Vanuatu mortuary practices over three millennia: Lapita to the Early European Period. Journal of Pacific Archaeology 2, 4965Google Scholar
Wall, J. 1967. The Quaternary geomorphology history of North Sarawak with special reference to the Subis Karst, Niah. Sarawak Museum Journal 15, 97125Google Scholar
Zuraina, Majid. 1982. The West Mouth, Niah, in the prehistory of Southeast Asia. Sarawak Museum Journal 31, 1200Google Scholar
Zuraina, Majid, Lim, A., Arif, J., Samsuddin, A.R., Nizam, A., Zafarina, Z., Norazmi, M.N. 2005. Niah 1977: A skeleton with bilateral absent radius. In Zuraina Majid (ed.), The Perak Man and other Prehistoric Skeletons of Malaysia, 207228. Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains MalaysiaGoogle Scholar