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Evil and responsibility in the Quran
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 January 2024
Abstract
The Quran contains numerous references to evil and some of these indicate that the responsibility of some instances of evil, which I call self-inflicted evil, lies with human beings rather than God. This idea of evil leads to an exploration of two interconnected issues in philosophical and theological discussions, moral responsibility and desert, along with the related tension between freedom of action and divine determinism. The article delves into this tension as it appears from the Quran and prevailing standpoints in Islamic theology. I propose that the tension between freedom of action and divine determinism resists a satisfactory reconciliation, which ultimately affects the plausibility of the idea of evil as self-inflicted. I further propose that embracing the contradictions arising from verses expressing freedom and responsibility, on the one hand, and those indicating divine determinism, on the other, could be a viable approach for the theologian.
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References
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Chowdhury, SZ (2020) God, gluts and gaps: examining an Islamic traditionalist case for a contradictory theology. History and Philosophy of Logic 42, 17–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cillis, M (2014) Free Will and Predestination in Islamic Thought: Theoretical Compromises in the Works of Avicenna, Al-Ghazālī and Ibn ‘Arabī. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
El-Rouayheb, K (2016) Theology and logic. In Schmidtke, S (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 408–431.Google Scholar
Fakhry, M (1953) Some paradoxical implications of the Muʿtazilite view of free will. The Muslim World 43, 95–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, JM and Ravizza, M (1998) Responsibility and Control: A Theory of Moral Responsibility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, M (1983) Moral obligation in classical Muslim theology. The Journal of Religious Ethics 11, 204–222.Google Scholar
Frankfurt, H (1969) Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. The Journal of Philosophy 6, 829–839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furlong, P (2019) The Challenges of Divine Determinism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghaly, M (2010) Islam and Disability: Perspectives on Theology and Jurisprudence. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ghaly, M (2014) Evil and suffering in Islam. In Peterson, M, Hasker, W, Reichenbach, B, and Basinger, D (eds), Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 383–390.Google Scholar
Ginet, C (1983) In defense of incompatibilism. Philosophical Studies 44, 391–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grim, P (2004) What is contradiction? In Priest G, Beall Jc, and Armour-Garb BP (eds), The Law of Non-Contradiction: New Philosophical Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 49–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heck, P (2014) Skepticism in Classical Islam: Moments of Confusion. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Honderich, T (1988) A Theory of Determinism: The Mind, Neuroscience, and Life-Hopes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hoover, J (2007) Ibn Taymiyya's Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, A (2009) Islam and the Problem of Black Suffering. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W (2005) The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy. New York: Longmans, Green.Google Scholar
Kadish, S (1968) The decline of innocence. The Cambridge Law Journal 26, 273–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kars, A (2019) Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laplace, PS (1995) Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. Dale A (ed.). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Marmura, E (1984) The metaphysics of efficient causality in Avicenna (Ibn Sina). In Marmura E (ed.), Islamic Theology and Philosophy: Studies in Honor of George F. Hourani. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 172–187.Google Scholar
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Moad, E (2018) What is Islamic Analytic Theology? Irving, TX: Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research.Google Scholar
Ormsby, E (1984) Theodicy in Islamic Thought: The Dispute over Al-Ghazālī's ‘Best of All Possible Worlds’. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pereboom, D (2005) Free will, evil, and divine providence. In Dole, A and Chignell, A (eds), God and the Ethics of Belief. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pereboom, D (2008) Defending hard incompatibilism again. In Trakakis, N and Cohen, D (eds), Essays on Free Will and Moral Responsibility. Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Pereboom, D (2017) Source incompatibilism and alternative possibilities 1. In Widerker, D and McKenna, M (eds), Moral Responsibility and Alternative Possibilities. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 185–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pike, N (1965) Divine omniscience and voluntary action. Philosophical Review 74, 27–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priest, G (2018) Dialetheism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward Zalta (ed.). Available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/dialetheism/.Google Scholar
Rahman F, (2000) Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. Moosa E (ed.). Oxford: Oneworld.Google Scholar
Rowe, W (1979) The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism. American Philosophical Quarterly 16, 335–341.Google Scholar
Russell, P (2002) Pessimists, Pollyannas, and the new compatibilism. In Kane, R (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Free Will. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 229–257.Google Scholar
Saeedimehr, M (2018) Divine knowledge and the doctrine of Badāʾ. TheoLogica 2, 23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shihadeh, A (2019) Avicenna's theodicy and al-Razi's anti-theodicy. Intellectual History of the Islamicate World 7, 61–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorabji, R (1980) Necessity, Cause, and Blame: Perspectives on Aristotle. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Thiele, J (2016) Abu Hashim al-Jubbā iʾ s (d. 321/933) theory of ‘states’ (aḥwal) and its application by Ashʿarite Theologians. In Schmidtke, S (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 365–383.Google Scholar
Trakakis, N and Cohen, D (eds) (2008) Essays on Free Will and Moral Responsibility. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
van Inwagen, P (1989) When is the will free? Philosophical Perspectives 3, 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Inwagen, P (2008) How to think about the problem of free will. The Journal of Ethics 12, 327–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasalou, S (2008) Moral Agents and their Deserts: The Character of Muʿtazilite Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vishanoff, D (2011) The Formation of Islamic Hermeneutics: How Sunni Legal Theorists Imagined a Revealed Law. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society.Google Scholar
Walbridge, J (2011) God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
White, M (1993) The Question of Free Will: A Holistic View. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
White, M (2016) Theological determinism and the ‘authoring sin’ objection. In Alexander, DE and Johns Eugene, DM (eds), Calvinism and the Problem of Evil. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, pp. 87–95.Google Scholar
Wolfson, HA (1976) The Philosophy of the Kalam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Zolghadr, B (2018) The Sufi path of dialetheism: gluon theory and Wahdat al-Wujud. History and Philosophy of Logic 39, 99–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abd Al-Jabbār, Q (n.d.) Al-Mughnī, v. 11 & 13, Mohamed Al-Najjar and Abd Al-Ḥalim Al-Najjar et al. (eds). Cairo: Al-dār al-masriyya.Google Scholar
ʿAbd Al-Jabbār, Q (2017) Faḍl al-Iʿtizāl, Fouad Sayyid and Ayman Sayyid (eds). Beirut: Dār al-Farabi.Google Scholar
al-Ashʿari, A (2009) Maqalāt al-Islāmiyyin wa Ikhtilāf al-Muṣalīn, vol. 2. Introduced by Zarzūr N (ed.). Beirut: Al-Maktabah al-ʿaṣriyyah.Google Scholar
al-Baqillāni, A (2000) Al-ʾInsāf fī ma Yajib Iʿtiqaduhu wa mā lā Yajūz al-Jahl bihi, al-Kawtharī M (ed.). Cairo: al-maktabah al-azhariyyah.Google Scholar
al-Bayhaqi, A (2006) Kitāb al-Qaḍāʾ wa al-Qadar. Introduced by Al-Amir M. Maktabat al-ʿubaykan.Google Scholar
al-Ghazali, A (1993) Al-Qisṭas al-Mustaqīm. Bijou M (ed.). Damascus: Al-maktbah al-ʿilmiyyah.Google Scholar
al-Ghazali, A (1993) Fayyṣal al-Tafriqah bayna al-Islam wa al-Zandaqah. Bijou M (ed.). Damascus: n.p.Google Scholar
al-Ghazali, A (1999) Al-Maqṣid al-Asna fi Sharḥ Asma Allah al-Ḥusna. Bijou M (ed.). Damascus: Al- ṣabah.Google Scholar
al-Juwayni, Ḍ (1969) Al-Shamil fi Usūl al-Dīn. Al-Nashar A et al. (eds). Alexandria: Al-Maʿarif.Google Scholar
al-Khazin, A (2004) Lubāb al-Taʾwīl fi Maʿani al-Tanzil (V.1). Abd al-Salam Shahin (ed.). Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmiyyah.Google Scholar
al-Maturidi, A (2001) Kitāb al-Tawiḥid. Ughli B and Arushi M (eds). Istanbul: Maktabt al-irshād.Google Scholar
al-Shahristani, A (1993) Al-Milal wa al-Niḥal, vol. 1. Mehana A and Faour A (eds). Beirut: Dār al-maʿrifah.Google Scholar
al-Ṭabarāni. Al-Tafīsr al-Kaībr: https://www.greattafsirs.com/Tafsir_Library.aspx?LanguageID=1&SoraNo=4&AyahNo=78&MadhabNo=2&TafsirNo=91.Google Scholar
Aristotle (2001) The Basic Works of Aristotle. McKeon R (ed. and trans). New York: Modern Library.Google Scholar
Averroes (1938) Tafsīr ma Baʿd al-Ṭabīʿah. Bouyges M (ed.). Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique.Google Scholar
Averroes (1954) Tahafut al-Tahafut [The Incoherence of the Incoherence]. Van Den Bergh S (trans.). London: E. J. Gibb Memorial.Google Scholar
Averroes (1964) Manāhij al-Adellah fi ʿAqāʾid al-Millah. Qasim M (ed.). Cairo: Maktabat al-anglo al-maṣriyyah.Google Scholar
Averroes (1986) Faṣl al-Maqāl wa Taqrīr ma bayna al-Shari'ah wa al-ḥikmah min Itiṣāl. Nadir A (ed.). Beirut: Dār al-mashriq.Google Scholar
Avicenna (1985) Ibn Sina's ‘Essay on the Secret of Destiny’. In Hourani, G (ed.), Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 227–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ibn Tayymiyah, T (2002) Al-Iklīil fi al-Mutashābih wa al-Taʾwīl. Shihatah M (ed.). Alexandria: Dār al-iman.Google Scholar
Ibn Tayymiyah, T (n.d.) Al-Tafsīr al-Kabīr, vol. 3, Abd Raḥmān Umayrah (ed.). Beirut: Dār al-kutub.Google Scholar
Ibn Tayymiyah, T (2005) Al-Rad ʿala al-Manṭiqiyyīn. Abd al-Ṣamad Sharaf al-Dīn and Bilāl M (eds). Beirut: Al-Rayyān.Google Scholar
Iqbal, M (2012) Knowledge and religious experience. In Sheikh, S (ed.), The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 1-28.Google Scholar
Spinoza, B (2018) Ethics. Silverthorne M (trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Abdelnour, M (2023) The Qurʾān and the future of Islamic analytic theology. Religions 14, 556–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrahamov, B (2016) Scripturalist and traditionalist theology. In Schmidtke, S (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 263–279.Google Scholar
Adamson, P (2010) Freedom and determinism. In Pasnau, R and Van Dyke, C (eds), The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 399–413.Google Scholar
Ahsan, A (2021) Islamic contradictory theology . . . is there any such thing? Logica Universalis 15, 291–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahsan, A (2022) Islamic mystical dialetheism: resolving the paradox of God's unknowability and ineffability. Philosophia: Philosophical Quarterly of Israel 50, 925–964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beall, J (2019) Christ – a contradiction: a defense of ‘contradictory Christology’. Journal of Analytic Theology 7, 400–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carnielli, W and Rodrigues, A (2016) On the philosophy and mathematics of the logics of formal inconsistency. In Beziau J, Chakraborty, M, and Dutta, S (eds), New Directions in Paraconsistent logic: Proceedings of the 5th World Congress on Paraconsistency (WCP). New Delhi: Springer, pp. 57–91.Google Scholar
Caruso, GD (2013) Free Will and Consciousness: A Determinist Account of the Illusion of Free Will. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, SZ (2020) God, gluts and gaps: examining an Islamic traditionalist case for a contradictory theology. History and Philosophy of Logic 42, 17–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cillis, M (2014) Free Will and Predestination in Islamic Thought: Theoretical Compromises in the Works of Avicenna, Al-Ghazālī and Ibn ‘Arabī. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
El-Rouayheb, K (2016) Theology and logic. In Schmidtke, S (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 408–431.Google Scholar
Fakhry, M (1953) Some paradoxical implications of the Muʿtazilite view of free will. The Muslim World 43, 95–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, JM and Ravizza, M (1998) Responsibility and Control: A Theory of Moral Responsibility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, M (1983) Moral obligation in classical Muslim theology. The Journal of Religious Ethics 11, 204–222.Google Scholar
Frankfurt, H (1969) Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. The Journal of Philosophy 6, 829–839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furlong, P (2019) The Challenges of Divine Determinism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghaly, M (2010) Islam and Disability: Perspectives on Theology and Jurisprudence. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ghaly, M (2014) Evil and suffering in Islam. In Peterson, M, Hasker, W, Reichenbach, B, and Basinger, D (eds), Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 383–390.Google Scholar
Ginet, C (1983) In defense of incompatibilism. Philosophical Studies 44, 391–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grim, P (2004) What is contradiction? In Priest G, Beall Jc, and Armour-Garb BP (eds), The Law of Non-Contradiction: New Philosophical Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 49–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heck, P (2014) Skepticism in Classical Islam: Moments of Confusion. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Honderich, T (1988) A Theory of Determinism: The Mind, Neuroscience, and Life-Hopes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hoover, J (2007) Ibn Taymiyya's Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, A (2009) Islam and the Problem of Black Suffering. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W (2005) The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy. New York: Longmans, Green.Google Scholar
Kadish, S (1968) The decline of innocence. The Cambridge Law Journal 26, 273–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kars, A (2019) Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laplace, PS (1995) Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. Dale A (ed.). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Marmura, E (1984) The metaphysics of efficient causality in Avicenna (Ibn Sina). In Marmura E (ed.), Islamic Theology and Philosophy: Studies in Honor of George F. Hourani. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 172–187.Google Scholar
McKenna, M and Justin, CD (2021) Compatibilism. In Edward Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/compatibilism/.Google Scholar
Moad, E (2018) What is Islamic Analytic Theology? Irving, TX: Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research.Google Scholar
Ormsby, E (1984) Theodicy in Islamic Thought: The Dispute over Al-Ghazālī's ‘Best of All Possible Worlds’. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pereboom, D (2005) Free will, evil, and divine providence. In Dole, A and Chignell, A (eds), God and the Ethics of Belief. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pereboom, D (2008) Defending hard incompatibilism again. In Trakakis, N and Cohen, D (eds), Essays on Free Will and Moral Responsibility. Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 1–34.Google Scholar
Pereboom, D (2017) Source incompatibilism and alternative possibilities 1. In Widerker, D and McKenna, M (eds), Moral Responsibility and Alternative Possibilities. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 185–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pike, N (1965) Divine omniscience and voluntary action. Philosophical Review 74, 27–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priest, G (2018) Dialetheism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward Zalta (ed.). Available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/dialetheism/.Google Scholar
Rahman F, (2000) Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. Moosa E (ed.). Oxford: Oneworld.Google Scholar
Rowe, W (1979) The Problem of Evil and Some Varieties of Atheism. American Philosophical Quarterly 16, 335–341.Google Scholar
Russell, P (2002) Pessimists, Pollyannas, and the new compatibilism. In Kane, R (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Free Will. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 229–257.Google Scholar
Saeedimehr, M (2018) Divine knowledge and the doctrine of Badāʾ. TheoLogica 2, 23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shihadeh, A (2019) Avicenna's theodicy and al-Razi's anti-theodicy. Intellectual History of the Islamicate World 7, 61–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorabji, R (1980) Necessity, Cause, and Blame: Perspectives on Aristotle. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Thiele, J (2016) Abu Hashim al-Jubbā iʾ s (d. 321/933) theory of ‘states’ (aḥwal) and its application by Ashʿarite Theologians. In Schmidtke, S (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 365–383.Google Scholar
Trakakis, N and Cohen, D (eds) (2008) Essays on Free Will and Moral Responsibility. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
van Inwagen, P (1989) When is the will free? Philosophical Perspectives 3, 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Inwagen, P (2008) How to think about the problem of free will. The Journal of Ethics 12, 327–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasalou, S (2008) Moral Agents and their Deserts: The Character of Muʿtazilite Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vishanoff, D (2011) The Formation of Islamic Hermeneutics: How Sunni Legal Theorists Imagined a Revealed Law. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society.Google Scholar
Walbridge, J (2011) God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
White, M (1993) The Question of Free Will: A Holistic View. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
White, M (2016) Theological determinism and the ‘authoring sin’ objection. In Alexander, DE and Johns Eugene, DM (eds), Calvinism and the Problem of Evil. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, pp. 87–95.Google Scholar
Wolfson, HA (1976) The Philosophy of the Kalam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Zolghadr, B (2018) The Sufi path of dialetheism: gluon theory and Wahdat al-Wujud. History and Philosophy of Logic 39, 99–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar