Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-2lccl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T00:14:52.531Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

China in the conception of international society: the English School's engagements with China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 July 2010

Abstract

Since Martin Wight's famous LSE lectures in the late 1950s, the English School scholars have brought China into the conception of international society. As the English School scholars have been ‘inventing’ an international society, China's status in the conception, or conceptions of international society has also been invented and reinvented. The Chinese case vividly demonstrates how a non-European (or non-Western) country, as one of ‘the others’, has been dealt with and brought into the conceptualisation of international society by the English School. China's status in the conception of international society, to a great extent, has been invented by some of the English School scholars with Eurocentric bias.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © British International Studies Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Jones, Roy, ‘The English School of International Relations: A Case for Closure’, Review of International Studies, 7:1 (1981), pp. 113CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Dunne, Tim, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Vigezzi, Brunello, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History (Milan: Edizioni Unicopli, 2005)Google Scholar ; Linklater, Andrew and Suganami, Hidemi, The English School of International Relations: A Contemporary Reassessment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

2 Bull, Hedley, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

3 Adam Roberts, ‘The Evolution of International Relations’, Notes for lecture at Royal College of Defence Studies, (21 January 2008), p. 15.

4 Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 19, pp. 1332, pp. 117126Google Scholar ; Watson, Adam, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 135309CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

5 Manning, Charles, The Nature of International Society, reissue with a new preface (London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Wight, Martin, International Theory: The Three Traditions (London: Leicester University Press, 1991), pp. 78, pp. 3031, pp. 139144Google Scholar ; Wight, Martin, ‘Why Is There No International Theory?’, in Wight, Martin and Butterfield, Herbert (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), p. 18Google Scholar ; Bull, Hedley, Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; James, Alan, Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986)Google Scholar .

6 Armstrong, David, Revolution and World Order: The Revolutionary State in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 14CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

7 Stern, Geoffrey, The Structure of International Society: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 2nd edition (London: Continuum, 2000), p. 58Google Scholar .

8 Wight, Martin, International Theory: The Three Traditions (London: Leicester University Press, 1991), p. 21, pp. 6669, pp. 9596, pp. 146147, pp. 148, 175, 186, 193Google Scholar .

9 Wight, Martin, International Theory: The Three Traditions, pp. 6669Google Scholar .

10 Butterfield, Herbert and Wight, Martin (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1966)Google Scholar .

11 H. Butterfield, ‘Notes for a Discussion on the Theory of International Politics’, British Committee on the Theory of International Politics, Meeting of 10–13 January 1964, Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE Archives.

12 British Committee on the Theory of International Politics, Meeting of 2–5 October 1964 at Peterhouse, Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE Archives.

13 Wight, Martin, ‘Balance of Power’, in Wight, Martin and Butterfield, Herbert (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics), p. 167Google Scholar .

14 Wight, Martin, Systems of States (London and Leicester: Leicester University Press in association with London School of Economics and Political Science, 1977), pp. 2145Google Scholar .

15 Martin Wight, Systems of States, p. 33.

16 Watson, Adam, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

17 Hudson, G. F., ‘Collective Security and Military Alliances’, in Wight, Martin and Butterfield, Herbert (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics, pp. 176180Google Scholar ; G. F. Hudson, ‘The Threats of Force in International Relations’, ibid., pp. 201–5.

18 G. F. Hudson, ‘The Traditional Chinese Conception of International Relations’ (2–5 October 1964), Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE Archives.

19 Martin Wight, Systems of States, p. 23.

20 Geoffrey Hudson, ‘The Extension of Western International System to Asia and Africa’ (9–12 July 1965), Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE Archives; Geoffrey Hudson, ‘The Period of the Warring States: A State System of Ancient China’, Hedley Bull Papers, Box 8, Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

21 Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis, p. 2.

22 Ibid., pp. 85–93.

23 Ibid., p. 121.

24 Martin Wight, Systems of States, p. 23.

25 Ibid., p. 119.

26 Bull, Hedley, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, 2nd edition (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, Ltd., 1995), pp. 1011Google Scholar .

27 Watson, Adam, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis, p. 3.Google Scholar

28 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 132Google Scholar .

29 Zhang, Yongjin, ‘System, Empire and State in Chinese International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 27 (2001), pp. 4363CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

30 Buzan, Barry and Little, Richard, International Systems in World History: Remaking the Study of International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 2021Google Scholar ; Little, Richard, ‘The English School's Contribution to the Study of International Relations’, European Journal of International Relations, 6:3 (2000), pp. 414415CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Zhang, Yongjin, ‘System, Empire and State in Chinese International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 27 (2001), p. 44CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

31 Bull, Hedley, ‘The European International Order’, (1980), in Alderson, Kai and Hurrell, Andrew (eds), Hedley Bull on International Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, Ltd., 2000), pp. 179180Google Scholar .

32 Bull, Hedley, ‘A Proposal for a Study’, October 1978, reprinted in Brunello Vigezzi, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History, pp. 425428Google Scholar .

33 In his email message to this author on 25 February 2008, Gerrit Gong acknowledged his debt to Hedley Bull: ‘As you would imagine, my work on the Standard of “Civilisation” in International Society owes a tremendous debt of gratitude to Professor Hedley Bull for his intellectual framing of the field.’ This author much appreciates Prof. Gong's kind response to his queries.

34 Lass Francis Lawrence Oppenhaim's International Law (1905) discussed the emergence of the standard of civilisation, and Georg Schwarzenberger published an article on the standard of civilisation in international law in 1955. And Hedley Bull touched on that theme and used the term ‘standard of “civilization”’ in his proposal for the British Committee in 1978. Bull, Hedley, ‘A Proposal for a Study’ (October 1978), reprinted in Brunello Vigezzi, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History, pp. 425428Google Scholar .

35 ‘Summary of discussion of Mr G. W. Gong's paper on “China's Entry into International Society”’, British Committee on Theory of International Politics, All Souls Meeting (18–20 April 1980), Hedley Bull Papers, Box 8, File III, Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

36 Gong, Gerrit W., ‘China's Entry into International Society’, Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 171183Google Scholar .

37 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984)Google Scholar .

38 Bull, Hedley, ‘A Proposal for a Study’ (October 1978), reprinted in Brunello Vigezzi, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History, pp. 425428Google Scholar ; Watson, Adam, ‘Some Comments on Our Theme’ (January 1979), reprinted in Brunello Vigezzi, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History, pp. 428431Google Scholar ; Bull, Hedley, ‘The Emergence of A Universal International Society’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, pp. 117126Google Scholar .

39 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, ‘Foreword’ by Bull, Hedley, pp. viix, 24Google Scholar .

40 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, pp. 2435Google Scholar .

41 Ibid., p. 98.

42 Watson, Adam, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis, p. 85Google Scholar .

43 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, pp. 130136Google Scholar .

44 Watson, Adam, ‘European International Society and Its Expansion’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 3031Google Scholar .

45 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, p. 57Google Scholar .

46 Zhang, Yongjin, China in International Society since 1949: Alienation and Beyond (Basingstoke: Macmilian Press, Ltd., in association with St. Anthony's College, Oxford, 1998), p. 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

47 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, p. 146Google Scholar .

48 But Yongjin Zhang argued that China entered into the universal international society in 1918–1920. Zhang, Yongjin, China in the International System, 1918–1920: The Middle Kingdom at the Periphery (Basingstoke: Macmillan in association with St. Anthony's College, Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar .

49 Callahan, William A., ‘Nationalizing International Theory: Race, Class and the English School’, Global Society, 18:4 (October 2004), p. 321Google Scholar .

50 Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, p. 183Google Scholar .

51 Armstrong, David, Revolution and World Order: The Revolutionary State in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

52 Alderson, Kai and Hurrell, Andrew (eds), Hedley Bull on International Society, p. 170, ‘Introductory note’Google Scholar .

53 Bull, Hedley, ‘The Revolt against the West’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, pp. 217228Google Scholar .

54 Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, p. 227, 229, 257, 277Google Scholar .

55 Bull, Hedley, Justice in International Relations, the Hager Lectures, reprinted in Alderson, Kai and Hurrell, Andrew (eds), Hedley Bull on International Society, p. 239Google Scholar .

56 Bull, Hedley, The Twenty Years' Crisis Thirty Years On’, International Journal, Xxiv:4 (Autumn 1969), pp. 625638CrossRefGoogle Scholar , reprinted in Alderson, Kai and Hurrell, Andrew (eds), Hedley Bull on International Society, p. 133, pp. 135–6Google Scholar .

57 Bell, Coral, ‘China and the International Order’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, p. 255Google Scholar .

58 Wight, Martin, Systems of States, pp. 174200Google Scholar ; Hudson, G. F., ‘The Defection of Lin Piao’ (March 1972), Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE Archives; Coral Bell, ‘The Contest for Asia: A New Diplomacy’, New Society (17 February 1972), Martin Wight Papers, File 253, LSE ArchivesGoogle Scholar .

59 When I interviewed Mary Bull in Oxford on 13 March 2008, Mrs Bull kindly showed me the photos Hedley Bull took during his trip in China.

60 Hedley Bull, ‘Report by Professor Bull’ (28 October 1973), Hedley Bull Papers, Box 4, File II, Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

61 Hedley Bull to Stephen Fitzgerald (Australian Ambassador to China) (28 June 1974), and Stephen Fitzgerald to Hedley Bull (8 August 1974), Hedley Bull Papers, Box 4, File V, Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

62 Bull, Hedley, ‘Introduction: Towards a New international Order in Asia and the Western Pacific?’, in Bull, Hedley (ed.), Asia and the Western Pacific: Towards a New International Order (Canberra: The Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1975), pp. xixiiGoogle Scholar .

63 Bull, Hedley, Anarchical Society, 2nd edition, pp. 98, 108–10, 197–9Google Scholar .

64 Bell, Coral, ‘China and the International Order’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, pp. 255267Google Scholar ; Hedley Bull, ‘Report by Professor Bull’ (28 October 1973), Hedley Bull Papers, Box 4, File II, Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

65 Goodwin, Geoffrey, ‘International Institutions and International Order’, in James, Alan (ed.), The Bases of International Order: Essays in Honor of C. A. W. Manning (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 184Google Scholar .

66 Bull, Hedley, Anarchical Society, 2nd edition, p. 286Google Scholar .

67 Wight, Martin, ‘The Balance of Power and International Order,’ in James, Alan, ed., The Bases of International Order: Essays in Honor of C. A. W. Manning, p. 114Google Scholar .

68 Bell, Coral, ‘China and the International Order’, in Bull, Hedley and Watson, Adam (eds), The Expansion of International Society, p. 265Google Scholar .

69 Vincent, R. J., Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 4142Google Scholar .

70 Roberts, Adam, ‘A New Era of International Relations’, in Ming, Yuan (ed.), Kuashiji de tiaozhan: Zhongguo guoji guanxi xueke de fazhan (The Trans-Centurial Challenge: The Development of International Relations as an Academic Discipline in China) (Chongqing: Chongqing People's Press, 1992), pp. 2256Google Scholar ; Zhang, Yongjin, ‘English School in China: A Travelogue of Ideas and Its Diffusion’, European Journal of International Relations, 9:1 (2003), pp. 87114CrossRefGoogle Scholar . I happened to be at the 1991 conference as a junior faculty member of Institute of International Relations, Peking University, and heard the name ‘English School’ for the first time although I first came cross an English School book (The Expansion of International Society) in 1987.

71 Armstrong, David, Revolution and World Order: The Revolutionary state in international society, pp. 183184Google Scholar .

72 Yongjin Zhang, China in the International System, 1918–20: The Middle Kingdom at the Periphery; Yongjin Zhang, China in International Society since 1949: Alienation and Beyond.

73 Ibid., pp. 99–251.

74 Segal, Gerald, ‘Does China Matter?’, Foreign Affairs, 78:5 (1999), pp. 2436CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

75 Kim, Samuel S., ‘China in World Politics’, in Buzan, Barry and Foot, Rosemary (eds), Does China Matters? A Reassessment: Essays in Memory of Gerald Segal (London: Routeledge, 2004), p. 40Google Scholar .

76 Ikenberry, John, ‘The Rise of China and the Future of the West: Can the Liberalism Survive?’, Foreign Affairs, 87:1 (January/February 2008), pp. 2337Google Scholar .

77 Glaser, Bonnie S. and Medeiros, Evan S., ‘The Changing Ecology of Foreign Policy Making in China: Then Ascension and Demise of the Theory of “Peaceful Rise”’, China Quarterly, 190 (June 2007), pp. 291310CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

78 Cabestan, Jean-Perre, ‘China Is Reaching Out to the New World’, Asian Perspective, 30:4 (2007), p. 5Google Scholar .

79 Kim, Samuel S., ‘China in World Politics’, in Buzan, Barry and Foot, Rosemary (eds), Does China Matter? A Reassessment: Essays in Memory of Gerald Segal, p. 40Google Scholar .

80 Those related works directly devoted to China include the following: Zhang, Yongjin, ‘System, Empire and State in Chinese International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 27 (2001), pp. 4363CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Buzan, Barry and Foot, Rosemary (eds), Does China Matter? A Reassessment: Essays in Memory of Gerald Segal (London: Routeledge, 2004)Google Scholar ; Callahan, William A., ‘How to Understand China: the dangers and opportunities of being a rising power’, Review of International Studies, 31 (2005), pp. 701774CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Foot, Rosemary, ‘Chinese Strategies in a US-hegemonic Global Order: Accommodating and Hedging’, International Affairs, 82:1 (2006), pp. 7794CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

81 Robert Jackson and Adam Roberts could probably be put into this category. Jackson, Robert, The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar ; Roberts, Adam, ‘International Relations after the Cold War’, International Affairs, 84:2 (2008), pp. 116CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

82 Nicholas Wheeler and Tim Dunne could probably be put into this category. Wheeler, Nicholas, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar ; Dunne, Tim and Wheeler, Nicholas J. (eds), Human Rights in Global Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Wheeler, Nicholas and Dunne, Tim, ‘East Timor and the New Humanitarian Interventionism’, International Affairs, 77:4 (2001), pp. 805827CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Wheeler, Nicholas and Dunne, Tim, Moral Britannia?: Evaluating the Ethical Dimension in Labour's Foreign Policy (London: The Foreign Policy Centre, 2005)Google Scholar .

83 James Mayall, Andrew Hurrell and Barry Buzan could probably be put into this category. Mayall, James (ed.), The New Interventionism 1991–1994: UN Experience in Cambodia, Former Yugoslavia and Somalia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Mayall, James, World Politics: Progress and Its Limits (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000)Google Scholar ; Hurrell, Andrew, On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Buzan, Barry, From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)Google Scholar .

84 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, p. 66Google Scholar .

85 Bull, Hedley, ‘Foreword’, Gerrit Gong, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, pp. viiviiiGoogle Scholar .

86 Gong, Gerrit, The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society, pp. 9093Google Scholar .

87 Interviews with Barry Buzan (4 March 2008), LSE; Donnely, Jack, ‘Human Rights: A new standard of civilization?’, International Affairs, 74:1 (1998), pp. 124CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

88 Vincent, John, Human Rights and International Relations, p. 129Google Scholar .

89 Zhang, Yongjin, ‘System, Empire and State in Chinese International Relations’, Review of International Studies, 27 (2001), p. 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

90 Zhang, Yongjin, ‘China's Entry into International Society: Beyond the Standard of “Civilization”’, Review of International Studies, 17:1 (1991), pp. 316CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

91 Vincent, John, Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 130, 132Google Scholar .

92 Wheeler, Nicholas, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 1Google Scholar .

93 Ibid., p. 1.

94 Dunne, Tim, ‘Fundamental Human Rights Crisis after 9/11’, International Politics, 44 (2007), p. 283CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

95 Ibid., pp. 69–286.

96 Hurrell, Andrew, ‘Power, Principles and Prudence: Protecting Human Rights in a Deeply Divided World’, in Dunne, Tim and Wheeler, Nicholas J. (eds), Human Rights in Global Politics, pp. 277302Google Scholar .

97 Hurrell, Andrew, ‘Hegemony, Liberalism and Global Order: What space for would-be great powers?’, International Affairs, 82:1 (2006), pp. 14Google Scholar .

98 Ibid., p. 4.

99 Ibid., p. 10.

100 Jackson, Robert, The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 364Google Scholar .

101 Roberts, Adam, ‘International Relations after the Cold War’, International Affairs, 84:2 (2008), p. 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

102 Ibid., p. 11.

103 Adam Roberts, ‘The Evolution of International Relations’, Notes for lecture at Royal College of Defence Studies (21 January 2008), pp. 19–21.

104 Scott, David, China Stands Up: The PRC and the International System (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 1519, 8385Google Scholar .

105 Foot, Rosemary, Rights beyond Borders: The Global Community and the Struggle over Human Rights in China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Foot, Rosemary, ‘Chinese Strategies in a US-hegemonic Global Order: Accommodating and Hedging’, International Affairs, 82:1 (2006), pp. 777794CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Adam Roberts, ‘The Evolution of International Relations’, Notes for lecture at Royal College of Defence Studies (21 January 2008), p. 21.

106 Adam Roberts, ‘The Evolution of International Relations’, Notes for lecture at Royal College of Defence Studies (21 January 2008), p. 21.

107 Ibid.

108 Andrew Hurrell, ‘Hegemony, Liberalism and Global Order: What space for would-be great powers?’; Rosemary Foot, ‘Chinese Strategies in a US-hegemonic Global Order: Accommodating and hedging’.

109 Wheeler, Nicholas J., ‘Introduction: The Political and Moral Limits of Western Military Intervention to Protect Civilians in Danger’, in McInnes, Colin and Wheeler, Nicholas J. (eds), Dimensions of Western Military Intervention (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2002), p. 4Google Scholar .

110 Tim Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School.

111 See Zhang, Yongjin, ‘English School in China: A Travelogue of Ideas and Its Diffusion’, European Journal of International Relations, 9:1 (2003), pp. 87114CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Barry Buzan, English School Bibliography for China: writings principally on China, or by Chinese authors about the English School (version of May 2007), {http://www.polis.leeds.ac.uk/research/international-relations-security/english-school/}; Hongni, Miao, ‘The English School in China’, in Yizhou, Wang (ed.), Zhongguo Guoji Guanxi Yanjiu, 1995–2005 (IR Studies in China, 1995–2005) (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2006), pp. 196224Google Scholar ; Zhirui, Chen, Guiyin, Zhou and Bin, Shi (eds), Kaifang De Guoji Shehui: Guoji Guanxi Yanjiu Zhong De Yingguo Xuepai (Open International Society: The English School in IR Studies) (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2006)Google Scholar ; Jia, Xu, Yingguo Xuepai Guoji Guanxi Lilun Yanjiu (A Study of ‘English School’ Theories) (Beijing: Contemporary Affairs Press, 2008)Google Scholar .

112 Zhang, Yongjin, ‘English School in China: A Travelogue of Ideas and Its Diffusion’, European Journal of International Relations, 9:1 (2003), p. 98CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

113 Yizhou, Wang, Xifang Guoji Guanxi Xue: Lilun Yu Lishi (Western International Politics: History and Theory) (Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press, 1998), pp. 378379Google Scholar ; Zhirui, Chen, Guiyin, Zhou and Bin, Shi (eds), Kaifang De Guoji Shehui: Guoji Guanxi Yanjiu Zhong De Yingguo Xuepai (Open International Society: The English School in IR Studies), p. 21, pp. 6970Google Scholar ; Cungang, Wang, ‘Learn From and Be Critical of the English School: Some Thoughts on Working on and Learning from the English School’, Europe Studies, 4 (2005), pp. 4852Google Scholar .

114 Some of the Chinese IR scholars have been taking great efforts in this regards. Tingyang, Zhao, Tianxia Tixi: Shijie Zhidu Zhexue Daolun (The Tianxia System: An Introduction to the Philosophy for the World Institutions) (Nanjing: Jiangsu Education Press, 2005)Google Scholar ; Tingyang, Zhao, ‘Rethinking Empire from a Chinese Concept “All-under Heaven” (Tian-xia)’, Social Identities 12:1 (2006), pp. 2941Google Scholar ; Yaqing, Qin, ‘Core Problematic of International Relations Theory and the Construction of a Chinese School’, Social Sciences in China, 3 (2005), pp. 165176Google Scholar ; Callahan, William A., ‘Chinese Visions of World Order: Post-hegemonic or a New Hegemony’, International Studies Review, 10 (2008), pp. 749761CrossRefGoogle Scholar .