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⁴⁷ Monty G. Marshall and Keith Jaggers “Polity IV Dataset Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–1999” (2000). Page numbers cited refer to Dataset User's Manual.

⁴⁸ Bollen and Paxton (fn. 45); Bowman, Kirk, Lehoucq, Fabrice, and Mahoney, James, “Measuring Political Democracy: Case Expertise, Data Adequacy, and Central America” Comparative Political Studies 38 (October 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Munck and Verkuilen (fn. 45); Shawn Treier and Simon Jackman, “Democracy as a Latent Variable” (Paper presented at the Political Methodology meetings, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis-St.Paul, July 2003).

⁴⁹ Correlations between Polity2 and other democracy indices (introduced below in the text) are as follows: “Political Rights” (Freedom House) = -.85; “Liberal Democracy” (Bollen) =.92; “Democracy index” (Vanhanen) = .85.

⁵⁰ Freedom in the World, survey methodology, on the Freedom House Web site: www.freedomhouse. org/research/freeworld/2000/methodology.htm.

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⁵² We see no reason to suppose that a longer period of measurement—which might, in principle, stretch back to 1850—would alter any of the findings presented here.

⁵³ This recoding affects the following countries: Albania (1900–1912, Ottoman Empire), Andorra (1900-present, France), Armenia (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Azerbaijan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Belarus (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Bosnia-Herzegovina (1908–17, Austria-Hungary; Yugoslavia 1929–91), Croatia (1900–1917, Austria-Hungary; Yugoslavia, 1929–91), Czech Republic (1900–1917, Austria-Hungary), Slovakia (1900–1917, Austria-Hungary), Estonia (1900–1916 and 1941–90, Russia/USSR), Finland (1900–1916, Russia), Georgia (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Iraq (1900–1917, Ottoman Empire), Palestine/Israel (1900–1917, Ottoman Empire), Kazakhstan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Kyrgyzstan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Latvia (1900–1917 and 1941–90, Russia/USSR), Lithuania (1900–1917 and 1941–90, Russia/USSR), Macedonia (1922–90, Yugoslavia), Moldova (1900–1945, Romania; 1946–90, USSR), Mongolia (1900–1920, China), Bangladesh (1947–71, Pakistan), Slovenia (1900–1917, Austria-Hungary; 1929–91, Yugoslavia), Syria (1900–1917, Ottoman Empire), Tajikistan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Turkmenistan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), Ukraine (1900–1917 and 1920–90, Russia/USSR), Uzbekistan (1900–1990, Russia/USSR), and East Timor (1976–99, Indonesia).

⁵⁴ In an alternative coding of this variable we assign a score of -10 (the lowest score on the Polity2 variable) to missing data from preindependence years (rather than the usual default score of 0). The historical variable constructed from this alternative coding procedure shows virtually identical results to those displayed in Table 1. Thus, in fixed-effect tests it does not matter what sort of coding procedure is used to fill in missing data from years prior to a country's independence. These scores, the reader will recall, matter only for the construction of the stock variable; they are not observations in the data analysis (no growth data is available for periods prior to independence).

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⁶⁹ These variables, drawn from the Banks (fn. 51) data set, are added together to form a composite index (construction of index by the authors).

⁷⁰ World Bank (fn. 56).

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² These variables are added together to form a composite index (construction by the authors). Monty Marshall, “Major Armed Conflicts and Conflict Regions, 1946–1997,” data set from CIDCM, University of Maryland (1999), obtained via the State Failure Task Force data set, http://gking.har-vard.edu/data.shtml (accessed April 25, 2005).

⁷³ World Bank (fn. 56).

⁷⁴ We interpolate missing values for illiteracy, life expectancy, and population growth in order to maintain a consistent sample (failing to do so would have significantly reduced the sample size and perhaps biased our results).

⁷⁵ See Papaioannou and Siourounis (fn. 1); Przeworski et al. (fn. 1).

⁷⁶ An additional test—not shown—divides the sample into (1) observations where a country registers a “positive” democratic stock (>0) and (2) observations where a country registers a “negative” democratic stock (<0). This tests the possibility that our aggregate results are being driven by influential groups of long-term democracies or long-term autocracies. Reassuringly, the coefficients and standard errors for our key variable, democracy stock, are virtually constant across these two subsamples, suggesting that there is a relatively consistent democratic growth effect for deep autocracies and deep democracies.

⁷⁷ The number of years that a country growing at rate g takes to double its income is given by ln 2/ln

⁷⁸ Temporal delays and nonlinear causal relationships are possible only if one moves beyond the realm of interests, opinions, and coercion tout court. For example, if a person does not fully realize his or her true interests then some delay between cause and effect might be anticipated.

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