Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-zzh7m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T14:00:24.284Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Healthy but mortal: human biology and the first farmers of western Europe

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

Mary Jackes
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, T6G 2H4 Canada. Mary.Jackes@UAlberta.ca
David Lubell
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, T6G 2H4 Canada. Mary.Jackes@UAlberta.ca
Christopher Meiklejohn
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg MB, R3B 2E9 Canada. MEIKLEJOHN_C@C_H.UWINNIPEG.CA

Extract

What do we know about the effects of the transition to agriculture on human biology? A literature has grown up that gives us the impression that we know a great deal about what happened to bones and teeth when people became sedentary farmers. A review of the sources of these ideas and the evidence supporting them, especially based on work in Portugal, reveals that a reconsideration of the biological consequences of farming in Europe is overdue.

Type
Papers
Copyright
Copyright © Antiquity Publications Ltd. 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahlström, T. 1995. Neolithization and physical anthropology with regard to the Scandinavian peninsula, Homo 45: 257–67.Google Scholar
Ammerman, A.J. & Cavalli-SFORZA, L.L. 1984. The neolithic transition and the genetics of populations in Europe. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderman, S. 1976. The enemic index: a critique, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 44: 369–70.Google Scholar
Angel, J.L. 1971. The people of Lerna: analysis of a prehistoric Aegean population. Princeton (NJ): American School of Classical Studies.Google Scholar
Araújo, A.C., Santos, A.I. & Cauwe, N. 1993. Grata do Escoural — a necrópole Neolítica, Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia 33: 5190.Google Scholar
Arias-Cabal, P. 1991. De cazadores a campesinos. La transición al neolítico en la región cantábrica. Santander: Universidad de Cantabria, Assemblea Regional de Cantabria.Google Scholar
Arias-Cabal, P. 1995. The Holocene colonization of the Cantabrian mountains (Spain): the case of the Picos de Europa region. Paper presented at the Fifth International Congress, UISPP Mesolithic Commission: ‘Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: paléoenvironnement, peuplements et systèmes culturels’, Grenoble, September.Google Scholar
Armelagos, G.J., Van Gerven, D.P., Goodman, A.H. & Calcagno, J.M. 1989. Post-Pleistocene biomechanics and selection against morphologically complex teeth: a rejoinder to Macchiarelli and Bondoli, Human Evolution 4:17.Google Scholar
Arnaiz-Villena, A., Benmamar, D., Alvarez, M., Diaz-Campos, N., Varela, P., Gomez-Casado, E. & Martinez-Laso, J. 1995. HLA Allele and haplotype frequencies in Algerians: relatedness to Spaniards and Basques, Human Immunology 43: 259–68.Google Scholar
Arnaud, J.M. 1982. Néolithique ancien et le processus de néolithisation dans le sud du Portugal, Archéologie en Languedoc, no. spécial (Actes du Colloque International de Préhistoire): 2948.Google Scholar
Arnaud, J.M. 1989. The Mesolithic communities of the Sado Valley, Portugal, in their ecological setting, in Bonsall, C. (ed.), The Mesolithic in Europe, papers presented at the third international symposium: 614–31. Edinburgh: John Donald.Google Scholar
Barbujani, G., Sokal, R.R. & Oden, N.L. 1995. Indo-European origins: a computer-simulation test of five hypotheses, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 96:109–32.Google Scholar
Beckett, S. & Lovell, N.C. 1994. Dental disease evidence for agricultural intensification in the Nubian C-Group, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 4: 223–40.Google Scholar
Bertranpetit, J. & Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. 1991. A genetic reconstruction of the history of the population of the Iberian Peninsula, Annals of Human Genetics 55: 5187.Google Scholar
Bicho, N. 1994. The end of the Paleolithic and the Mesolithic in Portugal, Current Anthropology 35: 66474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binder, D. 1995. The spread of the Neolithic in southern France. Paper presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis, May.Google Scholar
Bocquet-Appel, J.P. & Masset, C. 1996. Paleodemography: expectancy and false hope, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 99: 571–83.Google Scholar
Boroneant, V., Bonsall, C. & Mcsweeney, K. 1995. New research on the Mesolithic of the Iron Gates region: excavations at Schela Cladovei, Romania. Paper presented at the Fifth International Congress, UISPP Mesolithic Commission: ‘Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: paléoenvironnement, peuplements et systèmes culturels’, Grenoble, September.Google Scholar
Bridges, P.S. 1989. Changes in activities with the shift to agriculture in the southeastern United States, Current Anthropology 30: 385–94.Google Scholar
Brinch Petersen, E. & Meiklejohn, C. In press a. Historical context of the term ‘complexity’ in the Scandinavian Mesolithic, in Janik, et al. (ed.).Google Scholar
Brinch Petersen, E. & Meiklejohn, C. In press b. Paradigm lost? Intensification, sedentism and burial practice in southern Scandinavia: some questions and suggestions, in Janik, et al. (ed.).Google Scholar
Brinch Petersen, E., Alexandersen, V. & Meiklejohn, C. 1993. Vedbæk, graven midt i byen, Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1993: 61–9.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J.E. & Cook, D.C. 1981. Pre-Columbian tuberculosis west-central Illinois: prehistoric disease in biocultural perspective, in Buikstra, J.E., (ed.). Prehistoric tuberculosis in the Americas: 11539. Evanston (IL): Northwestern University Archeological Program.Google Scholar
Byrd, B.F. & Monahan, C.M. 1995. Death, mortuary ritual, and Natufian social structure, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 251–87.Google Scholar
Calafell, F. & Bertranpetit, J. 1993. The genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula: a simulation, Current Anthropology 34: 735–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canci, A., Repetto, E., Minozzi, S. & Borgognini TARLI, S.M. 1993. Due scheletri di eta neolitica dalla grotta delle Arene Candide (Liguria): Scavi 1973, Rivista di Anthropologic (Roma) 71: 285303.Google Scholar
Cassidy, C.M. 1980. Nutrition and health in agriculturalists and hunter–gatherers: a case study of two prehistoric populations, in Jerome, N.W., Kandel, R.F. & Pelto, G.H. (ed.), Nutritional anthropology contemporary approaches to diet and culture: 117–45. Pleasantville ??state??: Redgrave.Google Scholar
Cassidy, C.M. 1984. Skeletal evidence for prehistoric subsistence adaptation in the central Ohio River valley, in Cohen, & Armelagos, (ed.): 307–45.Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. 1993. Demie expansions and human evolution, Science 259: 639–46.Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. 1994. The history and geography of human genes. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chapdelaine, C. 1993. The sedentarization of the prehistoric Iroquoians: a slow or rapid transformation?, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 12: 173209.Google Scholar
Childe, V.G. 1958. The prehistory of European society. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Cohen, M.N. 1989. Health and the rise of civilization. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, M.N. 1994. The osteological paradox reconsidered, Current Anthropology 35: 629–31.Google Scholar
Cohen, M.N. & Armelagos, G.J. (ed.). 1984. Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture. Orlando (FL): Academic Press.Google Scholar
Constandse-Westermann, T. & Newell, R.R. 1990. A diachronic and chorological analysis of lateralization manifestations in the Western European skeletal sample: a novel approach to the assessment of social complexity, in Vermeersch, & Van Peer, (ed.): 95120.Google Scholar
Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Macaulay, V.A., Richards, M.B., Hariti, G., Issad, M.S., Cambon-Thomsen, A., Papiha, S., Bertranpetit, J. & Sykes, B.C. 1996. Genetic diversity in the Iberian Peninsula determined from mitochondrial sequence analysis, Annals of Human Genetics 60: 331–50.Google Scholar
Cunha, A.X. DA & Neto, M.A.M. 1955. Características da população da época visigótica de Silveirona (Estremoz) III: Esqueleto do tronco e dos membros, Contribuições para o Estado da Antropologia Portuguesa 6: 564.Google Scholar
Delgado, J.F.N. 1867. Da existência provável do homem no nosso solo em tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudo das cavernas. 1: Noticia acerca das grutas da Cesareda. Lisboa: Commissão Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geologicos.Google Scholar
Dennell, R.W. 1992. The origins of crop agriculture in Europe, in Cowan, C.W. & Watson, P.J. (ed.), The origins of agriculture: an international perspective: 71100. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Dolukhanov, P.M. 1986. The late Mesolithic and the transition to food production in eastern Europe, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 109–19.Google Scholar
Donahue, R.E. 1992. Desperately seeking ceres: a critical examination of current models for the transition to agriculture in Mediterranean Europe, in Gebauer, & Price, (ed.): 7380.Google Scholar
Ehrich, R.W. (ed.). 1992. Chronologies in Old World archaeology. 3rd Edition. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago.Google Scholar
El-Nofely, A. & Tawfik, W.A. 1995. On inheritance of permanent teeth crown size in a Middle Eastern population, Homo 46: 5162.Google Scholar
Y’edynak, G. 1989. Yugoslav Mesolithic dental reduction, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78: 1736.Google Scholar
Y’edynak, G. & Fleisch, S. 1983. Microevolution and biological adaptability in the transition from food-collecting to food-producing in the Iron Gates of Yugoslavia, Journal of Human Evolution 12: 279–96.Google Scholar
Fix, A.G. 1996. Gene frequency clines in Europe: demic diffusion or natural selection?, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (n.s.) 2: 625–43.Google Scholar
Formicola, V. 1986. Postcranial variations in late Epigravettian and Neolithic human remains from Arene Candide cave (Liguria, Italy), Human Evolution 6: 557–63.Google Scholar
Galera, V. 1989. Odontometry of a Spanish Neolithic-Bronze Age sample. Comparison with other populations of the Iberian Peninsula I: permanent teeth, Human Evolution 4: 271–81.Google Scholar
Galera, V. & Cunha, E. 1993. Dental patterns of Coimbra population, Anthropologie (Brno) 31: 3544.Google Scholar
Gallay, A. 1994. A propos de travaux récents sur la néolithisation de l’Europe de l’ouest, L’Anthropologie 94: 576–88.Google Scholar
Garn, S.M., Osborne, R.H. & McCabe, K.D. 1979. The effect of prenatal factors on crown dimensions, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 665–78.Google Scholar
Garralda, M.D. & Mesa, M.S. 1984. Variabilité morphologique dans la péninsule Ibérique: épipaléolithique-âge ancien, Bulletin et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 1, série 14: 207–20.Google Scholar
Gebauer, A.B. & Price, T.D. (ed.). 1992. Transitions to agriculture in prehistory. Madison (WI): Prehistory Press.Google Scholar
Gilman, A. 1992. The Iberian Peninsula, 6000-1500 BC, in Ehrich, (ed.): 1 295301, II 238–56.Google Scholar
Giot, P.-R., Marguerie, D. & Morzadec, H. 1994. About the age of the oldest passage-graves in western Brittany, Antiquity 68: 624–6.Google Scholar
González Morales, M. & Arnaud, J.M. 1990. Recent research on the Mesolithic of the Iberian Peninsula, in Vermeersch, & Van Peer, (ed.): 451–61.Google Scholar
Goodman, A.H. 1993. On the interpretation of health from skeletal remains, Current Anthropology 34: 281–8.Google Scholar
Grey, P.E. 1982. The metric and non-metric morphology of the dentition of the Glen Williams ossuary from Ontario. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Saskatchewan.Google Scholar
Harding, R.M., Rösing, F.W. & Sokal, R.R. 1990. Cranial measurements do not support neolithization of Europe by demie expansion, Homo 40: 4558.Google Scholar
Hartney, P.C. 1978. Paleopathology of archaeological aboriginal populations from southern Ontario and adjacent region. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Hodges, D.C. 1987. Health and agricultural intensification in the prehistoric Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 73: 323–32.Google Scholar
Holden, T.G., Hather, J.C. & Watson, J.P.N. 1995. Mesolithic plant exploitation at the Roc del Migdia, Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 769–78.Google Scholar
Hopf, M. 1987. Les débuts de l’agriculture et la diffusion des plantes cultivées dans la péninsule Ibérique, in Guilaine, J., Courtin, J., Roudil, J.-L. & Vernet, J-L. (ed.), Premières communautés paysannes en méditerranée occidentale: 267–74. Paris: CNRS.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopf, M. 1991. South and southwest Europe, in Van Zeist, W., Wasylikowa, K. & Behre, K.-E. (ed.), Progress in Old World palaeoethnobotany: 241–77. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Howells, W.W. 1960. Estimating population numbers through archaeological and skeletal remains, in Heizer, R.F. & Cook, S.F. (ed.), The application of quantitative methods in archaeology. 158–80. Chicago (IL): Quadrangle Books.Google Scholar
Isidoro, A.F. 1981. Espólio ósseo humano da gruta neolítica do Escoural, Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia (Porto) 24: 558.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1977. The Huron spine. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1988a, The osteology of the Grimsby Site. Edmonton: Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1988b. Demographic change at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition: evidence from Portugal, Rivista di Antropologia (Roma) 66 (supplement): 141–58.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1992. Paleodemography: problems and techniques, in Saunders, S. & Katzenberg, A. (ed.), Skeletal biology of past peoples: research methods: 189224. New York (NY): Wiley-Liss.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1993. On paradox and osteology, Current Anthropology 34: 434–9.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1994. Birth rates and bones, in Herring, A. & Chan, L. (ed.), Strength in diversity: a reader in physical anthropology: 155–85. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. 1996. Complexity in seventeenth century southern Ontario burial practices, in Meyer, D.A., Dawson, P.C. & Hanna, D.T. (ed.), Debating complexity: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Chacmool Conference: 127–40. Calgary: Archaeological Association, University of Calgary.Google Scholar
Jackes, M. & Gao, Q. In press. Jiangzhai and BanPo (Shaanxi, PRC): new ideas from old bones, in Janik, et al. (ed.).Google Scholar
Jackes, M. & Lubell, D. 1992. Neolithic human remains, in Zilhão, (ed.): 2595.Google Scholar
Jackes, D. 1995. Dental pathology and diet: second thoughts, in Otte, M. (ed.), Nature et culture, Colloque du Liège (13-17 décembre 1993): 455–78. Liège: ERAUL 68.Google Scholar
Jackes, D. In press. Human skeletal biology and the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Portugal, in Bintz, P. (ed.), Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: peuplements, systèmes culturels et paléoenvironnement. Grenoble: Institut Dolomieu.Google Scholar
Jackes, M., Lubell, D. & Meiklejohn, C. 1997. On physical anthropological aspects of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the Iberian Peninsula, Current Anthropology 38(5).Google Scholar
Jacobs, K. 1992. Human population differentiation in the peri-Baltic Mesolithic: the odontometrics of Oleneostrovski’ mogilnik (Karelia), Human Evolution 7: 3348.Google Scholar
Jacobs, K. 1994. Reply to D.W. Anthony, On subsistence change at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, Current Anthropology 35: 52–9.Google Scholar
Jacobs, K. 1995. Returning to Oleni’ ostrov: social, economic, and skeletal dimensions of a boreal forest Mesolithic cemetery, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 359403.Google Scholar
Janik, L., Kaner, S., Matsui, A. & Rowley-Conwy, P. (ed.). In press. From the Jomon to Star Carr. Oxford: Oxbow Books.Google Scholar
Johnson, A.L. & Lovell, N.C. 1995. Dental morphological evidence for biological continuity between the C-Group and C-Group periods in Lower Nubia, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 368–76.Google Scholar
Kalb, P. 1989. O megalitismo e a neolitização no oeste de Peninsula Iberica, Arqueologia 20: 3348.Google Scholar
Kalb, P. 1991. Zur relativen Chronologie portugiesischer Megalithgräber, Madrider Mitteilungen 22: 5577.Google Scholar
Keeley, L.H. 1992. The introduction of agriculture to the western North European Plain, in Gebauer, & Price, (ed.): 8195.Google Scholar
Keene, H.J. 1991. On heterochrony in heterodonty: a review of some problems in tooth morphogenesis and evolution, Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34: 251–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knutsson, H. 1995. Slutvandrat? Aspekter på övergången fraån rörlig till bofast tillvaro. Uppsala: Societas Archeologica Upsaliensis.Google Scholar
Kozlowski, J.K. & Kozlowski, S.K. 1986. Foragers of central Europe and their acculturation, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 95108.Google Scholar
Lalueza Fox, C. 1996. Physical anthropological aspects of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the Iberian Peninsula, Current Anthropology 37: 689–95.Google Scholar
Larsson, L. 1990. The Mesolithic of southern Scandinavia, Journal of World Prehistory 4: 257309.Google Scholar
Lentacker, A. 1991. Archeozoölogisch onderzoek van laat-prehistorische vindplaatsen uit Portugal. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Laboratorium voor Paleontologie, Rijks-universiteit Gent.Google Scholar
Lewthwaite, J. 1986. The transition to food production: a Mediterranean perspective, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 5366.Google Scholar
Lentacker, A. 1988. From Menton to Mondego in three steps: application of the availability model to the transition to food production in Occitania, Mediterranean Spain and southern Portugal, Arqueologia (Porto) 13: 95119.Google Scholar
Lillie, M.C. 1996. Mesolithic and Neolithic populations of Ukraine: indications of diet from dental pathology, Current Anthropology 37: 135–42.Google Scholar
Linaza Peña, M.A. & Basabe, J.M. 1987. Antropología de la dentición en las cuevas sepulcrales de la Edad del Bronce de Guipúzcoa. Caracteres métricos y atrición, Munibe 39: 327.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, C.O., Burstein, A.H. & Heiple, K.G. 1976. The bio-mechanical analysis of bone strength: a method and its application to platycnemia, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 44: 489505.Google Scholar
Lubell, D. & Jackes, M. 1985. Mesolithic-Neolithic continuity: evidence from chronology and human biology, in Ramos, M. (ed.), Actas, I Renunião do Quaternário Iberico: 113–33. Lisboa: Grupo de Traballio Português para o Estudo do Quaternario.Google Scholar
Lubell, D., Jackes, M., Schwarcz, H., Knyf, M. & Meiklejohn, C. 1994. The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Portugal: isotopie and dental evidence of diet, Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 201–16.Google Scholar
Lubell, D., Sheppard, P. & Gilman, A. 1992. The Maghreb, 20,000–4000 BP, in Ehrieh, (ed.): 1 305–8, II 257–67.Google Scholar
Lukacs, J.R. 1991. Localized enamel hypoplasia of human deciduous canine teeth: prevalence and pattern of expression in rural Pakistan, Human Biology 63: 513–22.Google Scholar
Macchiarelli, R. & Bondioli, L. 1986. Post-Pleistocene reductions in human dental structure: a reappraisal in terms of increasing population density, Human Evolution 1: 405–18.Google Scholar
Martin, D.L., Armelagos, G.J., Goodman, A.H. & Van GERVEN, D.P. 1984. The effects of socioeconomic change in prehistoric Africa: Sudanese Nubia as a case study, in Cohen, & Armelagos, (ed.): 203–14.Google Scholar
Martin, R. 1957–66. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in systematischer Darstellung, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der anthropologischer Methoden. 3rd edition. Stuttgart: G. Fischer.Google Scholar
Martinez-Laso, J., De Juan, D., Martinez-Quiles, N., Gomez-Casado, E., Cuadrado, E. and Arnaiz-Villena, A. 1995. The contribution of the HLA-A, -B, -C and -DR, -DQ DNA typing to the study of the origins of Spaniards and Basques, Tissue Antigens 45: 237–45.Google Scholar
Masset, C. 1993. Les Dolmens: sociétés néolithiques pratiques funéraires. Paris: Éditions Errance.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, C. & Schentag, C.T. 1988. Dental size in two Portuguese Mesolithic series and their implications. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75: 249.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, C., Schentag, C., Venema, A. & Key, P. 1984. Socioeconomic change and patterns of pathology and variation in the Mesolithic and Neolithic of western Europe: some suggestions, in Cohen, & Armelagos, (ed.): 75100.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, C., Wyman, J., Jacobs, K. & Jackes, M. 1997. Issues in the archaeological demography of the agricultural transition in western and northern Europe: a view from the Mesolithic, in Paine, R.R. (ed.), Integrating archaeological demography: multidisciplinary approaches to prehistoric population: 311–26. Carbondale (IL): Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University. Occasional Paper 24.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, C., Wyman, J.M. & Schentag, C.T. 1992. Caries and attrition: dependent or independent variables? International Journal of Anthropology 7: 1722.Google Scholar
Meiklejohn, C. & Zvelebil, M. 1991. Health status of European populations at the agricultural transition and the implications for the adoption of farming, in Bush, H. & Zvelebil, M. (ed.), Health in past societies: biocultural interpretations of human skeletal remains in archaeological contexts: 129–45. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. International series 567.Google Scholar
Mendes CorrÊa, A. & Teixeira, C. 1949. A jazida pré-histórica de Eira Pedrinha (Condeixa). Lisboa: Serviços Geológicos de Portugal.Google Scholar
Mizoguchi, Y. 1993. Overall associations between dental size and foodstuff intakes in modern human populations, Homo 44: 3773.Google Scholar
Moral, P., Esteban, E., Vives, S., Valveny, N., Toja, D.I. & Gonzales-Reimers, E. 1997. Genetic study of the population of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain): protein markers and review of classical polymorphisms, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102: 337–49.Google Scholar
Neeley, M.P. & Clark, G.A. 1990. Measuring social complexity in the European Mesolithic, in Vermeersch, & Van Peer, (ed.): 127–37.Google Scholar
Pennington, R.L. 1996. Causes of early human population growth, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 99: 259–74.Google Scholar
Potekhina, I. & Telegin, D. 1995. On the dating of the Ukrainian Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, Current Anthropology 36: 823–6.Google Scholar
Price, T.D. 1987. The Mesolithic of western Europe, Journal of World Prehistory 1: 225305.Google Scholar
Price, T.D. 1991. The Mesolithic of northern Europe, Annual Review of Anthropology 20: 211–33.Google Scholar
Price, T.D. (Ed.). In press. Europe’s first farmers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Price, T.D. 1995. Last hunters—first farmers in southern Scandinavia. Paper presented at the Fifth International Congress, UISPP Mesolithic Commission: ‘Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: paléoenvironnement, peuplements et systèmes culturels’, Grenoble, September.Google Scholar
Price, T.D. & Gebauer, A.B.. 1992. The final frontier: first farmers in northern Europe, in Gebauer, & Price, (ed.): 97116.Google Scholar
Price, T.D., Gebauer, A.B. & Keeley, L.H. 1995. The spread of farming into Europe north of the Alps, in Price, T.D. & Gebauer, A.B. (ed.), Last hunters — first farmers: new perspectives on the prehistoric transition to agriculture: 95126. Santa Fe (NM): School of American Research Press.Google Scholar
Prowse, T.L. & Lovell, N.C. 1995. Biological continuity between the A- and C-groups in Lower Nubia: evidence from cranial non-metric traits, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 103–14.Google Scholar
Queiroz Lopes, A. & Serra, J.A. 1944. Correlações entre a estatura e alguns caracteres osteométricos, Contribuções para o Estudo da Antropologia Portuguesa 4: 317–57.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. 1992. Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity, Man (n.s.) 27: 445–78.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. 1994. Concluding remarks: Childe and the study of culture process, in Harris, D.R. (ed.), The archaeology of V. Gordon Childe: 121–33. London: University College London.Google Scholar
Renfrew, C. & Bahn, P. 1991. Archaeology: theories, methods and practice. New York (NY): Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Richards, M., Côrte-Real, H., Forster, P., Macaulay, V., Wilkinson-Herbots, H., Demaine, A., Papiha, S., Hedges, R., Bandelt, H-J. AND Sykes, B. 1996. Paleolithic and Neolithic lineages in the European mitochondrial gene pool, American Journal of Human Genetics 59: 185203.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, P. 1992. The Early Neolithic animal bones from Gruta do Caldeirao, in Zilhão, (ed.): 231–57.Google Scholar
Ruff, C.B., Larsen, C.S. & Hayes, W.C. 1984. Structural changes in the femur with the transition to agriculture on the Georgia coast, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 64:125–36.Google Scholar
Schentag, C. & Meiklejohn, C. N.d. The affect of dental preservation on dental caries frequencies: a case from the western European Mesolithic. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Serra, J., Albuquerque, R. & Neto, M. 1952. Características da população da época visigótica de Silveirona (Estremoz) 1: Estrutura e robustez dos ossos longos, Contribuções para o Estudo da Antropologia Portuguesa 5: 201–33.Google Scholar
Semino, O., Passarino, G., Brega, A., Fellous, M. AND Santachiara-Benerecetti, A.S. 1996. A view of the Neolithic demie diffusion in Europe through two Y chromosome-specific markers, American Journal of Human Genetics 59: 964–8.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A. 1995. Instruments of conversion? The role of megaliths in the Mesolithic/Neolithic transition in northwest Europe, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 14: 245–60.Google Scholar
Skinner, M.F., Hadaway, W. & Dickie, J. 1994. Effects of ethnicity, nutrition, and birth month on localized enamel hypoplasia of the primary canine, Journal of Dentistry for Children 61: 109–13.Google Scholar
Skinner, M.F. & Hung, J.T.W. 1989. Social and biological correlates of localized enamel hypoplasia of the human deciduous canine tooth, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79: 159–75.Google Scholar
Smith, B.D. 1989. Origins of agriculture in eastern North America, Science 246: 1566–71.Google Scholar
Smith, B.D. 1995. Seed plant domestication in eastern North America, in Price, & Gebauer, (ed.): 193213.Google Scholar
Smith, P. & Shegev, M. 1988. The dentition of Nubians from Wadi Halfa, Sudan: an evolutionary perspective, Journal of the Dental Association of South Africa 43: 539–41.Google Scholar
Sobral, F. 1990. Changes in stature in southern Portugal between 1930 and 1980 according to conscript data, Human Biology 62: 491504.Google Scholar
Sokal, R.R., Oden, N.L. & Wilson, C. 1991. Genetic evidence for the spread of agriculture in Europe by demie diffusion, Nature 351: 143–4.Google Scholar
Straus, L.G. 1991. The ‘Mesolithic-Neolithic transition’ in Portugal: a view from Vidigal, Antiquity 65: 899903.Google Scholar
Straus, L.G. 1992. Iberia before the Iberians: the stone age prehistory of Cantabrian Spain. Albuquerque (NM): University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Straus, L.G., Altuna, J. & Vierra, B. 1990. The Conchiero at Vidigal: a contribution to the late Mesolithic of southern Portugal, in Vermeersch, & Van Peer, (ed.): 463–74.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M. & Reimer, P.J. 1993. Extended 14C data base and revised CALIB 3.0 14C age calibration program, Radiocarbon 35: 215–30.Google Scholar
Sueiro, M. & Fernandes, A. 1933a. O índice cnémico nas tibias humanas mesolíticas de Mugem, Communicações dos Serviços Geológicos de Portugal 19: 211–21.Google Scholar
Sueiro, M. & Fernandes, A. 1933b. O índice cnémico nas tíbias humanas das estações Romanas de Aicoutão e Fonte do Padre Pedro, Communicações dos Serviços Geológicos de Portugal 19: 223–33.Google Scholar
Sueiro, M. & Fernandes, A. 1938. O índice cnémico nas tíbias humanas das estações neolíticas Portuguesas, Communicações dos Serviços Geológicos de Portugal 20: 317.Google Scholar
Tait, G.S. 1988. The dental morphology of the southern Ontario Iroquois. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta.Google Scholar
Tamagini, E. & De Campos, D.S. Vieira 1949. O fémur Português, Contribuções para o Estado da Antropologia Portuguesa 2: 569.Google Scholar
Thorpe, I.J. 1996. The origins of agriculture in Europe. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Trigger, B.C. 1980. Gordon Childe: revolutions in archaeology. New York (NY): Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Turnbaugh, W.A., Nelson, H., Jurmain, R. & Kilgore, L. 1993. Understanding physical anthropology and archeology. 5th edition. Minneapolis (MN): West.Google Scholar
van Andel, T.H. & Runnels, C.N. 1995. The earliest farmers in Europe, Antiquity 69: 481500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vencl, S. 1986. The role of hunting-gathering populations in the transition to farming: a central European perspective, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 4351.Google Scholar
Verhart, L. 1995. Late Mesolithic in the southern Netherlands: interaction, exchange and transition. Paper presented at the Fifth International Congress, UISPP Mesolithic Commission: ‘Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: paléoenvironnement, peuplements et systèmes culturels’, Grenoble, September.Google Scholar
Vermeersch, P.M. & Van Peer, P. (ed.). 1990. Contributions to the Mesolithic in Europe: papers presented to the Fourth International Symposium ‘The Mesolithic in Europe’, Leuven 1990. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit.Google Scholar
Vierra, B.J. 1992. Subsistence diversification and the evolution of microlithic technologies: a study of the Portuguese Mesolithic. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico.Google Scholar
Wattez, J. 1992. Dynamique de formation des structures de la fin du Paléolithique au Néolithique moyen: approche méthodologique et implications culturelles. Unpublished thèse de doctorat de préhistoire, Université de Paris 1.Google Scholar
Wood, J.W., Milner, G.R., Harpending, H.C. & Weiss, K.M. 1992. The usleological paradox: problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples, Current Anthropology 33: 343–70.Google Scholar
Wright, K.E. 1977. The use of dental morphology to identify an Ontario Iroquois ossuary population. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, McMaster University.Google Scholar
Zagorska, I. & Larsson, L. 1994. New data on the chronology of the Zvejnieki stone age cemetery, Mesolithic Miscellany 15 (2): 310.Google Scholar
Zammit, J. 1991. L’émergence des sépultures collectives du Néolithique Française: réflexions et hypothèses, L’Anthropologie 95: 237–56.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J. (ed.). 1992. Gruta do Caldeirão, o Neolítico Antigo. Lisbon: Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico. Trabalhos de Arqueologia 6.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J. 1993. The spread of agro-pastoral economies across Mediterranean Europe: a view from the far west, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 6: 563.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J. In press. From the Mesolithic to the Neolithic in the Iberian Peninsula, in Price, (ed.).Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. 1986a. Mesolithic societies and the transition to farming: problems of time, scale and organisation, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 167–88.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. (Ed.) 1986b. Hunters in transition: Mesolithic societies of temperate Eurasia and their transition to farming. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. 1994. Plant use in the Mesolithic and its role in the transition to farming, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 60: 3574.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. & Lillie, M. 1995. Agricultural frontier and the transition to farming in eastern Europe. Paper presented at the Fifth International Congress, UISPP Mesolithic Commission: ‘Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique en Europe: paléoenvironnement, peuplements et systèmes culturels’, Grenoble, September.Google Scholar
Zvelebil, M. & Rowley-Conwy, P. 1986. Foragers and farmers in Atlantic Europe, in Zvelebil, (ed.): 6793.Google Scholar