Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vvkck Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T10:04:09.844Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ethnolects and the city: Ethnic orientation and linguistic variation in Toronto English

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 May 2010

Michol F. Hoffman  and
James A. Walker
Michol F. Hoffman
Affiliation:
York University
James A. Walker
Affiliation:
York University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Following recent work that questions traditional social categories, this paper examines the role of ethnicity in conditioning linguistic variation. Reporting on a large-scale project in the multicultural context of Toronto, we argue for combining emic and etic approaches to social categorization. Focusing on the Chinese and Italian communities, our analysis of two sociolinguistic variables shows that speakers may vary in overall rate, but linguistic conditioning remains largely constant across and within ethnic groups. Whereas there is evidence for language transfer in the first generation, differences between generations suggest that transfer does not persist. Some speakers appear to use overall rates to express ethnic identity. Differences between communities may be explained in terms of different timelines of settlement and visible-minority status.

Type
Research Article
Information
Language Variation and Change , Volume 22 , Issue 1 , March 2010 , pp. 37 - 67
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Anisef, Paul, & Lanphier, Michael. (eds.) (2003). The world in a city. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ash, Sharon, & Myhill, John. (1986). Linguistic correlates of inter-ethnic contact. In Sankoff, D. (ed.), Diversity and diachrony. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 33–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Guy. (2002). Real and apparent time. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., & Schilling-Estes, N. (eds.), The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford, MA: Blackwell. 312–332.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy, & Tillery, Jan. (2004). Some sources of divergent data in sociolinguistics. In Fought, C. (ed.), Sociolinguistic variation: Critical reflections. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11–30.Google Scholar
Bauder, Harald, & Sharpe, Bob. (2002). Residential segregation of visible minorities in Canada's gateway cities. Canadian Geographer 46:204–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Robert S., & Benedict, Paul K. (1997). Modern Cantonese phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baugh, John. (1996). Dimensions of a theory of econolinguistics. In Guy, G. R., Feagin, C., Schiffrin, D., & Baugh, J. (eds.), Towards a social science of language, Volume 1: Variation and change in language and society. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 397–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayley, Robert. (1996). Competing constraints on variation in the speech of adult Chinese learners of English. In Bayley, R. & Preston, D. R. (eds.), Second language acquisition and linguistic variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 97–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayley, Robert, & King, Ruth. (2003). Languages other than English in Canada and the United States. In Preston, D. R. (ed.), Needed research in American dialects. Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press. 163–229.Google Scholar
Bell, Allan. (1997). The phonetics of fish and chips in New Zealand: Marking national and ethnic identities. English World-Wide 18:243–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Allan. (2007). Style in dialogue: Bakhtin and sociolinguistic theory. In Bayley, R. & Lucas, C. (eds.), Sociolinguistic variation: Theories, methods, and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 90–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benor, Sarah B. (2001). The learned /t/: Phonological variation in Orthodox Jewish English. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 7:1–16.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Cynthia. (1993). Measuring social causes of phonological variation in Texas. American Speech 68:227–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, John. (1998). Official multiculturalism. In Edwards, J. (ed.), Language in Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 84–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boberg, Charles. (2004). Ethnic patterns in the phonetics of Montreal English. Journal of Sociolinguistics 8:538–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boberg, Charles. (2005). The Canadian Shift in Montreal. Language Variation and Change 17:133–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boberg, Charles. (2008). Regional phonetic differentiation in standard Canadian English. Journal of English Linguistics 36:129–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourne, Larry S., Baker, Alan M., Kalback, Warren, Robert, Cressman, & Green, David. (1986). Canada's ethnic mosaic: Characteristics and patterns of ethnic origin in urban areas. Major Report No. 24. Toronto: Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Brinton, Laurel, & Fee, Margery. (2001). Canadian English. In Algeo, J. (ed.), The Cambridge history of the English language, Volume VI: English in North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 422–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, Catherine P., & Goldstein, Louis. (1990). Tiers in articulatory phonology, with some implications for casual speech. In Kingston, J. & Beckman, M. E. (eds.), Papers in laboratory phonology I: Between the grammar and physics of speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 341–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchignani, Norman, & Letkemann, Paul. (1994). Ethnographic research. In Berry, J. W. & Laponce, J. A. (eds.), Ethnicity and culture in Canada: The research landscape. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 203–237.Google Scholar
Cameron, Deborah. (1995). Verbal hygiene. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carlock, Elizabeth, & Wölck, Wolfgang. (1981). A method for isolating diagnostic linguistic variables: The Buffalo ethnolects experiment. In Sankoff, D. & Cedergren, H. (eds.), Variation omnibus. Edmonton: Linguistic Research Inc. 17–24.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. (1998). English: Canadian varieties. In Edwards, J. (ed.), Language in Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 252–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. K. (2002). Dynamics of dialect convergence. In Milroy, L. (ed.), Investigating change and variation through dialect contact. Special issue of Sociolinguistics 6:117–130.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. (2003). Sociolinguistics of immigration. In Britain, D. & Cheshire, J. (eds.), Social dialectology: Studies in honour of Peter Trudgill. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 97–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, Sandra, Elms, Ford, & Youssef, Amani. (1995). The third dialect of English: Some Canadian evidence. Language Variation and Change 7:209–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, Michael, Eisikovits, Edina, & Tollfree, Laura. (2001). Ethnic varieties of Australian English. In Blair, D. & Collins, P. (eds.), English in Australia. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 223–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clyne, Michael, Eisikovits, Edina, & Tollfree, Laura. (2002). Ethnolects as in-group varieties. In Duszak, A. (ed.), Us and others: Social identities across languages, discourses and cultures. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 133–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutler, Cecilia. (1997). Yorkville Crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English. Journal of Sociolinguistics 3:428–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Arcy, Alexandra. (2005). The development of linguistic constraints: Phonological innovations in St. John's. Language Variation and Change 17:327–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danesi, Marcel. (1985). Ethnic languages and acculturation: The case of Italo-Canadians. Canadian Ethnic Studies 17:98–103.Google Scholar
De Decker, Paul. (2002). The Canadian shift beyond the city limits. M.A. thesis, York University.Google Scholar
De Decker, Paul, & Mackenzie, Sara. (1999). “Slept through the ice”: A further look at lax vowel lowering in Canadian English. Paper presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation 28, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
De Vos, George A. (1995). Ethnic pluralism: Conflict and accommodation. The role of ethnicity in social history. In Romanucci-Ross, L. & De Vos, G. (eds.), Ethnic identity: Creation, conflict, and accommodation, 3rd edition.London: AltaMira/Sage Publications. 15–47.Google Scholar
Dodsworth, Robin. (2005). Linguistic variation and sociological consciousness. Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Dubois, Sylvie, & Melançon, Megan. (1997). Cajun is dead—Long live Cajun: Shifting from a linguistic to a cultural community. Journal of Sociolinguistics 1:63–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffy, Andrew. (2004). Needs are vast in ethnic enclaves. Toronto Star, October 2.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (1989). The whole woman: Sex and gender differences in variation. Language Variation and Change 1:245–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2000). Linguistic variation as social practice. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2008). Variation and the indexical field. Journal of Sociolinguistics 12:453–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckert, Penny, & McConnell-Ginet, Sally. (1992). Think practically and look locally: Language and gender as community-based practice. Annual Review of Anthropology 21:461–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, John, & Chisholm, Joan. (1987). Language, multiculturalism and identity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 8:391–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, Walter F. (1992). Sociolinguistic behavior in a Detroit inner-city black neighbourhood. Language in Society 21:93–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, Donald G. (1999). Crafting society: Ethnicity, class, and communication theory. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farley, Catherine, & Listar, Damian. (2007). The language quilt. Toronto Star, December 31.Google Scholar
Flege, James E., Munro, Murray J., & MacKay, Ian A. R. (1996). Factors affecting production of word-initial consonants in a second language. In Bayley, R. & Preston, D. R. (eds.), Second language acquisition and linguistic variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 47–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fought, Carmen. (1999). A majority sound change in a minority community: /u/-fronting in Chicano English. Journal of Sociolinguistics 3:5–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fought, Carmen. (2002). Ethnicity. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., & Schilling-Estes, N. (eds.), The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford, MA: Blackwell. 444–472.Google Scholar
Fought, Carmen. (2006). Language and ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, Howard. (1979). Ethnicity markers in speech. In Scherer, K. R. & Giles, H. (eds.), Social markers in speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 251–289.Google Scholar
Giles, Howard, Bourhis, Richard Y., & Taylor, Donald M. (1977). Toward a theory of language in ethnic group relations. In Giles, H. (ed.), Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations. London: Academic Press. 307–349.Google Scholar
Guy, Gregory R. (1980). Variation in the group and the individual: The case of final stop deletion. In Labov, W. (ed.), Locating language in time and space. New York: Academic Press. 1–36.Google Scholar
Guy, Gregory R. (1991). Contextual conditioning in variable lexical phonology. Language Variation and Change 3:223–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guy, Gregory R., & Boberg, Charles. (1997). Inherent variability and the Obligatory Contour Principle. Linguistic Variation and Change 9:149–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guy, Gregory R., & Boyd, Sally. (1990). The development of a morphological class. Language Variation and Change 2:1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guy, Gregory R., Horvath, Barbara, Vonwiller, Julia, Daisley, Elaine, & Rogers, Inge. (1986). An intonational change in progress in Australian English. Language in Society 15:23–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagiwara, Robert. (2006). Vowel production in Winnipeg. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 51:127–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Roxy. (2006). New ethnicities and language use. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazen, Kirk. (2002). Identity and language variation in a rural community. Language 78:240–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazen, Kirk. (2008). (ING): A vernacular baseline for English in Appalachia. American Speech 83:116–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, Linette N., & Pollock, Karen E. (2000). Regional variations in the phonological characteristics of African American Vernacular English. World Englishes 19:59–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F. (1998). Looking for a theng: The progress of lax vowel lowering. Presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation 27, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F. (1999a). Plasure not pleasure: Lax vowel lowering in Canadian English. Paper presented at the 10th International Conference on Methods in Dialectology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F. (1999b). Really expansive: the progress of lax vowel lowering in a chain shift. Paper presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation 28, University of Toronto, York University, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Michol F. (forthcoming). The social profile of the Canadian vowel shift in Toronto. Unpublished manuscript, York University.Google Scholar
Horvath, Barbara. (1985). Variation in Australian English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Horvath, Barbara, & Sankoff, David. (1987). Delimiting the Sydney speech community. Language in Society 16:179–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isajiw, Wsevolod W. (1985). Definitions of ethnicity. In Bienvenue, R. M. & Goldstein, J. E. (eds.), Ethnicity and ethnic relations in Canada: A book of readings. 2nd edition.Toronto: Butterworths. 5–17.Google Scholar
Jacobs-Huey, Lanita. (1997). Is there an authentic African American speech community? Carla revisited. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 4:331–370.Google Scholar
Johnstone, Barbara, & Kiesling, Scott F. (2008). Indexicality and experience: Exploring the meanings of /aw/-monophthongization in Pittsburgh. Journal of Sociolinguistics 12:5–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, John E. (2004). Language and identity: National, ethnic, religious. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalin, Rudolf, & Berry, J. W. (1994). Ethnic and multicultural attitudes. In Berry, J. W. & Laponce, J. A. (eds.), Ethnicity and culture in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 293–321.Google Scholar
Keefe, Susan E., & Padilla, Amado M. (1987). Chicano ethnicity. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Kerswill, Paul, Torgersen, Eivind Nessa, & Fox, Susan. (2008). Reversing “drift”: Innovation and diffusion in the London diphthong system. Language Variation and Change 20:451–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keung, Nicholas. (2004). Ethnic mini-cities on rise: StatsCan. Toronto Star. March 10.Google Scholar
Kiesling, Scott F. (2005). Variation, stance and style: Word-final –er, high rising tone, and ethnicity in Australian English. English World-Wide 26:1–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Ruth, & Clarke, Sandra. (2002). Contesting meaning: Newfie and the politics of ethnic labeling. Journal of Sociolinguistics 6:537–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knack, Rebecca. (1991). Ethnic boundaries in linguistic variation. In Eckert, P. (ed.), New ways of analyzing sound change. New York: Academic Press. 251–272.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1963). The social motivation of a sound change. Word 19:273–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William. (1966). The social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1984). Field methods of the project on linguistic change and variation. In Baugh, J. & Sherzer, J. (eds.), Language in use. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 28–53.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1990). The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change. Language Variation and Change 2:205–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William. (1996). Resyllabification. In Hinskens, F., Hout, R. van, & Wetzels, W. L. (eds.), Variation, change and phonological theory. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 145–179.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (2001). Principles of linguistic change, Volume 2: Social factors. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (2008). Mysteries of the substrate. In Meyerhoff, M. & Nagy, N. (eds.), Social lives in language—Sociolinguistics and multilingual speech communities. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 315–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William, Ash, Sharon, & Boberg, Charles. (2006). The atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William, Cohen, Paul, Robins, Clarence, & Lewis, John. (1968). A Study of the Non-standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. Co-operative Research Report 3288, Vol. I. Philadelphia: U.S. Regional Survey.Google Scholar
Laferriere, Martha. (1979). Ethnicity in phonological variation and change. Language 55:603–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LePage, Robert, & Tabouret-Keller, Andree. (1985). Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lippi-Green, Rosina. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Matthews, Stephen, & Yip, Virginia. (1994). Cantonese: A comprehensive grammar. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
McCafferty, Kevin. (2001). Ethnicity and language change: English in (London) Derry, Northern Ireland. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meechan, Marjory. (1999). The Mormon drawl: Religious ethnicity and phonological variation in southern Alberta. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Ottawa.Google Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, Norma. (1997). Chicana/Mexicana identity and linguistic variation: An ethnographic and sociolinguistic study of gang affiliation in an urban high school. Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, Norma. (2002). Language and identity. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., & Schilling-Estes, N. (eds.), The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford, MA: Blackwell. 475–499.Google Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, Norma. (2008). Homegirls: Language and cultural practice among Latina youth gangs. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milroy, Lesley. (1987a). Observing and analysing natural language. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Milroy, Lesley. (1987b). Language and social networks. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Milroy, Lesley. (2001). The social categories of race and class: Language ideology and sociolinguistics. In Coupland, N., Sarangi, S., & Candlin, C. N. (eds.), Sociolinguistics and social theory. London: Longman. 235–260.Google Scholar
Milroy, Lesley, & Milroy, James. (1992). Social network and social class: Toward an integrated sociolinguistic model. Language in Society 21:1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. (2001). The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. (2008). Language evolution: Contact, competition, and change. London: Continuum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, Jerry. (1988). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
O'Bryan, Kenneth G., Reitz, Jeffrey G., & Kuplowska, O. (1976). Non-official languages: A study in Canadian multiculturalism. Ottawa: Supply and Services.Google Scholar
Podesva, Robert J. (2006). Phonetic detail in sociolinguistic variation: Its linguistic significance and role in the construction of social meaning. Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana. (1980). “Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español”: Toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics 18:581–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poplack, Shana. (1989). The care and handling of a megacorpus: The Ottawa-Hull French Project. In Fasold, R. & Schiffrin, D. (eds.), Language change and variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 411–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poplack, Shana, & Tagliamonte, Sali. (1999). The grammaticization of going to in (African American) English. Language Variation and Change 11:315–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poplack, Shana, Walker, James A., & Malcolmson, Rebecca. (2006). An English “like no other”? Language contact and change in Quebec. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 51:185–213.Google Scholar
Posner, Rebecca. (1996). The Romance languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rampton, Ben. (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Ray, Brian. (1994). Immigration settlement and housing in metropolitan Toronto. Canadian Geographer 38:262–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reaser, Jeffrey. (2004). A quantitative sociolinguistic analysis of Bahamian copula absence: Morphosyntactic evidence from Abaco Island, the Bahamas. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 19:1–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1985). Ethnicity as a sociolinguistic boundary. American Speech 60:99–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1999). African American Vernacular English: Features, evolution, educational implications. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R., & McNair-Knox, Faye. (1994). Addressee- and topic-influenced style shift: A quantitative sociolinguistic study. In Biber, D. & Finegan, E. (eds.), Perspectives on register: Situating register variation within sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 235–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roeder, Rebecca. (2007). Ethnicity and sound change: Mexican American accommodation to the Northern Cities Shift in Lansing, Michigan. Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Roeder, Rebecca, & Jarmasz, Lidia-Gabriela. (2008). The lax vowel subsystem in Canadian English revisited. Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics 26:1–12.Google Scholar
Sankoff, David, & Sankoff, Gillian. (1973). Sample survey methods and computer-assisted analysis in the study of grammatical variation. In Darnell, R. (ed.), Canadian languages in their social context. Edmonton: Linguistic Research. 7–64.Google Scholar
Sankoff, David, Tagliamonte, Sali, & Smith, Eric. (2005). Goldvarb X: A multivariate analysis application. Department of Linguistics, University of Toronto, and Department of Mathematics, University of Ottawa.Google Scholar
Santa Ana, Otto. (1992). Phonetic simplification processes in the English of the barrio: A cross-generational sociolinguistic study of the Chicanos of Los Angeles. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Santa Ana, Otto. (1996). Sonority and syllable structure in Chicano English. Language Variation and Change 8:63–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schecter, Sandra, & Bayley, Robert. (2002). Language as cultural practice: Mexicanos en el norte. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schiffrin, Deborah. (1994). Approaches to discourse. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Siemiatycki, Myer, Rees, Tim, Ng, Roxana, & Rahi, Khan. (2003). Integrating community diversity in Toronto: On whose terms? In Anisef, P. & Lanphier, M. (eds.), The world in a city. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 373–456.Google Scholar
Silva-Corvalan, Carmen. (1994). Language contact and change: Spanish in Los Angeles. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverstein, Michael. (2003). Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. Language and Communication 23:193–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2003). Ethnic diversity survey: Portrait of a multicultural society. Ottawa: Ministry of Industry.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2006). 2006 Census of Canada: Profile data for Toronto. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali. (2002). Comparative sociolinguistics. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., & Schilling-Estes, N. (eds.), The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford, MA: Blackwell. 729–763.Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali. (2006). “So Cool, Right?”: Canadian English entering the 21st century. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 51:309–331.Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali, & Temple, Rosalind. (2005). New perspectives on an ol' variable. Language Variation and Change 17:281–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Troper, Harold. (2003). Becoming an immigrant city: A history of immigration into Toronto since the Second World War. In Anisef, P. & Lanphier, M. (eds.), The world in a city. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 19–61.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. (1972). Sex, covert prestige and linguistic change in the urban British English of Norwich. Language in Society 1:179–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, James A. (2001). Ethnicity as explanation in linguistic variation: Is it really black and white? Paper presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation 31, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.Google Scholar
Walker, James A. (2007). Frequency and lexical effects in variation: (t/d)-deletion in Toronto English. Paper presented at Change and Variation in Canada, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
Walker, James A. (2008). On the role of frequency and the lexicon in phonological variation: (t/d)-deletion in Toronto English. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Linguistic Association, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia.Google Scholar
Walker, James A., & Meyerhoff, Miriam. (2006). Zero copula in the Eastern Caribbean: Evidence from Bequia. American Speech 81:146–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinfeld, Morton. (1985). Myth and reality in the Canadian mosaic: “Affective ethnicity.” In Bienvenue, R. M. & Goldstein, J. E. (eds.), Ethnicity and ethnic relations in Canada: A book of readings. 2nd edition.Toronto: Butterworths. 65–86.Google Scholar
Weinfeld, Morton. (1994). Ethnic assimilation and the retention of ethnic cultures. In Berry, J. W. & Laponce, J. A. (eds.), Ethnicity and culture in Canada: The research landscape. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 238–266.Google Scholar
Wölck, Wolfgang. (2002). Ethnolects—Between bilingualism and urban dialect. In Wei, L., Dewaele, J.-M., & Housen, A. (eds.), Opportunities and challenges of bilingualism. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 157–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1969). A sociolinguistic description of Detroit Negro speech. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1974). Sociolinguistic aspects of assimilation: Puerto Rican English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1993). Identifying and interpreting variables. In Preston, D. R. (ed.), American dialect research. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 193–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yinger, J. Milton. (1994). Ethnicity: Source of strength? Source of conflict? Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Zelinsky, Wilbur. (2001). The enigma of ethnicity: Another American dilemma. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.Google Scholar
Zucchi, John E. (1988). Italians in Toronto: Development of a national identity, 1875–1935. Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar